Language of flowers
Floriography is a means of cryptological communication through the use or arrangement of flowers. Meaning has been attributed to flowers for thousands of years, and some form of floriography has been practiced in traditional cultures throughout Europe, Asia, and Africa.
History
According to Jayne Alcock, grounds and gardens supervisor at the Walled Gardens of Cannington, the renewed Victorian era interest in the language of flowers finds its roots in Ottoman Turkey, specifically the court in Constantinople and an obsession it held with tulips during the first half of the 18th century. In the 14th century, the Turkish tradition sélam had an influence on the language of flowers. Sélam or better known throughout Europe as Turkish love letters, consisted of using a mixture of different objects, flowers, locks of hair, pearls were some of the objects that could be wrapped in a handkerchief which would create a poetic hidden message. The receiver would be then decipher the message by finding the meaning of the words which had to rhyme with the name of the object, this would be repeated with every object until a verse could be completedDuring the Victorian age, the use of flowers as a means of covert communication coincided with a growing interest in botany. The floriography craze was introduced to Europe by the Englishwoman and Poet Mary Wortley Montagu, who brought it to England in 1718 from her travels to Constantinople. Aubry de La Mottraye, who introduced it to the Swedish court in 1727. Joseph Hammer-Purgstall's Dictionnaire du language des fleurs appears to be the first published list associating flowers with symbolic definitions, while the first dictionary of floriography appears in 1819 when Louise Cortambert, writing under pen name Madame Charlotte de la Tour, wrote Le langage des Fleurs.
Robert Tyas was a popular British flower writer, publisher, and clergyman, who lived from 1811 to 1879; his book, The Sentiment of Flowers; or, Language of Flora, first published in 1836 and reprinted by various publishing houses at least through 1880, was billed as an English version of Charlotte de la Tour's book.
Interest in floriography soared in Victorian England, North America and France during the 19th century. Gifts of blooms, plants, and specific floral arrangements were used to send a coded message to the recipient, allowing the sender to express feelings of romance and courtship which could not be spoken aloud in Victorian society. Armed with floral dictionaries, Victorians often exchanged small "talking bouquets" or "word poesy,” called nosegays or tussie-mussies, which could be worn or carried as a fashion accessory. The word "nosegay" was used because the flowers would smell nice and the word "gay" meant ornament. These accessories were originally worn to mask the scent of the streets and body odor, and were often composed of fragrant herbs and flowers such as lavender, lemon balm, and roses.
During the 16th century, the purpose of the tussie-mussies changed. They were commonly gifted to a love interest. The meaning of flowers was determined by their cultural meanings along with legends and myths. In England and America, courses such as botany, painting flowers, and floral arranging became popular in education, especially for young women. Tussie-mussies are still used in modern-day as corsages and boutonnieres.
In the United States, the first appearance of the language of flowers in print was in the writings of Constantine Samuel Rafinesque, a French-American naturalist, who wrote on-going features under the title "The School of Flora", from 1827 through 1828, in the weekly Saturday Evening Post and monthly Casket; or Flowers of Literature, Wit, and Sentiment. These pieces contained the botanic, English, and French names of the plant, a description of the plant, an explanation of its Latin names, and the flower's emblematic meaning; therefore readers could select flowers appropriately to send a message. However, the first books on floriography were Elizabeth Wirt's Flora's Dictionary and Dorothea Dix's The Garland of Flora, both of which were published in 1829, though Wirt's book had been issued in an unauthorized edition in 1828.
During its peak in the United States, the language of flowers attracted the attention of popular writers and editors. Sarah Josepha Hale, longtime editor of the Ladies' Magazine and co-editor of Godey's Lady's Book, edited Flora's Interpreter in 1832; it continued in print through the 1860s. Catharine H. Waterman Esling wrote a long poem titled "The Language of Flowers", which first appeared in 1839 in her own language of flowers book, Flora's Lexicon; it continued in print through the 1860s. Lucy Hooper, an editor, novelist, poet, and playwright, included several of her flower poems in The Lady's Book of Flowers and Poetry, first published in 1841. Frances Sargent Osgood, a poet and friend of Edgar Allan Poe, first published The Poetry of Flowers and Flowers of Poetry in 1841, and it continued in print through the 1860s.
Meanings
The significance assigned to specific flowers in Western culture varied – nearly every flower had multiple associations, listed in the hundreds of floral dictionaries – but a consensus of meaning for common blooms has emerged. Often, definitions derive from the appearance or behavior of the plant itself. For example, the mimosa, or sensitive plant, represents chastity. This is because the leaves of the mimosa close at night, or when touched. Likewise, the deep red rose and its thorns have been used to symbolize both the blood of Christ and the intensity of romantic love, while the rose's five petals are thought to illustrate the five crucifixion wounds of Christ. Pink roses imply a lesser affection, white roses suggest virtue and chastity, and yellow roses stand for friendship or devotion. The black rose may be associated with death and darkness due to the traditional connotations of the shade."A woman also had to be pretty precise about where she wore flowers. Say, for instance, a suitor had sent her a tussie-mussie. If she pinned it to the 'cleavage of bosom', that would be bad news for him, since that signified friendship. Ah, but if she pinned it over her heart, 'That was an unambiguous declaration of love'." Details such as positioning of flowers and their buds were very important and carried different messages.
The action of giving flowers served as a silent answer to a question. If flowers were presented with the right hand it would indicate the answer to the question was "yes", if the flowers were given with the left hand it meant "no". Important details such as which side the bow was tied determined if the message applied to the person presenting the flowers or the person receiving them.
Later authors inspired by this tradition created lists that associate a birthday flower with each day of the year.
In literature
, Jane Austen, Charlotte and Emily Brontë, John Henry Ingram in Flora Symbolica, and children's novelist Frances Hodgson Burnett, among others, used the language of flowers in their writings.Shakespeare used the word "flower" more than 100 times in his plays and sonnets. In Hamlet, Ophelia mentions the symbolic meanings of flowers and herbs as she hands them to other characters in Act 4, Scene 5: pansies, rosemary, fennel, columbine, rue and daisy. She regrets she has no violets, she says, "... but they wither'd all when my father died". In The Winter's Tale, the princess Perdita wishes that she had violets, daffodils, and primroses to make garlands for her friends. In A Midsummer Night's Dream, Oberon talks to his messenger Puck amidst a scene of wild flowers.
In J. K. Rowling's 1997 novel Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone, Professor Severus Snape uses the language of flowers to express regret and mourning for the death of Lily Potter, his childhood friend and Harry Potter's mother, according to Pottermore.
Flowers are often used as a symbol of femininity. John Steinbeck's short story "The Chrysanthemums" centers around the yellow florets, which are often associated with optimism and lost love. When the protagonist, Elisa, finds her beloved chrysanthemums tossed on the ground, her hobby and womanhood have been ruined; this suffices the themes of lost appreciation and femininity in Steinbeck's work.
Hajime Isayama frequently used various types of flowers for symbolism and foreshadowing in his manga series Attack on Titan, which also includes Hanakotoba, the Japanese form of floriography.
Flower symbolism in Iranian culture
Flowers hold a special place in Iranian culture, symbolizing beauty, renewal, and spiritual harmony. In Persian poetry and art, they often represent love, purity, and the fleeting nature of life. The rose signifies love and divine beauty, appearing frequently in the works of Hafez and Saadi, while the tulip symbolizes martyrdom and national pride, especially in modern Iran.In art
s have long served as more than mere decorative elements in art, often carrying rich symbolic meanings that reflect cultural, religious, and personal narratives. This tradition dates back centuries, with artists using floral imagery to communicate emotions, allegories, and social messages.In Religion and Mythology
Throughout art history, flowers have served as potent symbols, reflecting religious, cultural, and philosophical ideas through visual expression. Rather than solely appearing in myth or ritual, floral motifs have been integrated into artworks to convey deeper meanings across eras and regions.In Indian miniature paintings from the Mughal period, the lotus flower appears frequently alongside deities like Lakshmi and Brahma, symbolizing purity and spiritual awakening. Similarly, the Ajanta cave murals depict lotuses emerging from sacred ponds beneath figures of the Buddha, reinforcing its role as a symbol of spiritual growth. In Tibetan thangka paintings, color variations of the lotus convey symbolic meaning—white for purity, pink for the historical Buddha, and blue for wisdom.
File:Botticelli-primavera.jpg|thumb|Primavera, 1482, Sandro Botticelli
In Renaissance painting, artists like Sandro Botticelli used flowers to enhance allegorical narratives. In Primavera, over 500 plant species are depicted, including the rose, which symbolizes Venus and divine love. The lily frequently appears in Annunciation scenes, such as in Leonardo da Vinci’s Annunciation, where it signals the Virgin Mary's purity and chastity.
Classical mythology also influenced European art across centuries. The myth of Narcissus was captured by Caravaggio's Narcissus, using reflection and surrounding flowers to symbolize vanity and self-love. The story of Hyacinthus inspired Romantic works like Jean Broc’s The Death of Hyacinthus, where the hyacinth flower becomes a symbol of grief and rebirth after the youth's tragic death.
By examining these specific artworks and art movements, it becomes clear that flowers are not merely decorative motifs, but essential visual devices through which artists across cultures communicate cultural identity, spiritual values, and emotional depth.