Sufism
Sufism is a mystic body of religious practice found within Islam which is characterized by a focus on Islamic purification, spirituality, ritualism, and asceticism.
Practitioners of Sufism are referred to as "Sufis", and historically typically belonged to "orders" known as —congregations formed around a grand who would be the last in a chain of successive teachers linking back to Muhammad, with the goal of undergoing and the hope of reaching the spiritual station of. The ultimate aim of Sufis is to seek the pleasure of God by endeavoring to return to their original state of purity and natural disposition, known as.
Sufism emerged early on in Islamic history, partly as a reaction against the expansion of the early Umayyad Caliphate and mainly under the tutelage of Hasan al-Basri. Although Sufis were opposed to dry legalism, they strictly observed Islamic law and belonged to various schools of Islamic jurisprudence and theology. Although the overwhelming majority of Sufis, both pre-modern and modern, remain adherents of Sunni Islam, some strands of Sufi thought transferred over to the ambits of Shia Islam during the late Middle Ages. This particularly happened after the Safavid conversion of Iran under the concept of irfan. Important focuses of Sufi worship include, the practice of the remembrance of God. Sufis also played an important role in spreading Islam through their missionary and educational activities.
Despite a relative decline of Sufi orders in the modern era and attacks from fundamentalist Islamic movements, Sufism has continued to play an important role in the Islamic world. It has also influenced various forms of spirituality in the West and generated significant academic interest.
Definitions
The Arabic word , generally translated as "Sufism", is commonly defined by Western authors as Islamic mysticism. The Arabic term has been used in Islamic literature with a wide range of meanings by both proponents and opponents of Sufism. Classical Sufi texts, which stressed certain teachings and practices of the Quran and the sunnah, gave definitions of that described ethical and spiritual goals: and functioned as teaching tools for their attainment. Many other terms that described particular spiritual qualities and roles were used instead in more practical contexts.Some modern scholars have used other definitions of Sufism, such as the "intensification of Islamic faith and practice" and the "process of realizing ethical and spiritual ideals".
The term Sufism was originally introduced into European languages in the 18th century by Orientalist scholars, who viewed it mainly as an intellectual doctrine and literary tradition at variance with what they saw as the sterile monotheism of Islam. It was often mistaken as a universal mysticism in contrast to legalistic orthodox Islam. In recent times, the historian Nile Green has argued against such distinctions, stating that in the medieval period Sufism and Islam were more or less the same. In modern scholarly usage, the term serves to describe a wide range of social, cultural, political, and religious phenomena associated with Sufis.
Sufism has been variously defined as "Islamic mysticism", "the mystical expression of Islamic faith", "the inward dimension of Islam", "the phenomenon of mysticism within Islam", the "main manifestation and the most important and central crystallization" of mystical practice in Islam, and "the interiorization and intensification of Islamic faith and practice".
Etymology
The original meaning of ' seems to have been "one who wears wool ", and the Encyclopaedia of Islam calls other etymological hypotheses "untenable". Woolen clothes were traditionally associated with ascetics and mystics. Al-Qushayri and Ibn Khaldun both rejected all possibilities other than ' on linguistic grounds. Moreover, medieval scholars like Al Biruni believed that the term 'Sufi' gradually evolved from the Greek term σοφός , which means wisdom or knowledge.Another explanation traces the lexical root of the word to , which in Arabic means "purity", and in this context another similar idea of as considered in Islam is tazkiyah, which is also widely used in Sufism. These two explanations were combined by the Sufi al-Rudhabari, who said, "The Sufi is the one who wears wool on top of purity."
Others have suggested that the word comes from the term , who were a group of impoverished companions of Muhammad who held regular gatherings of dhikr. One of the most prominent companions among them was Abu Hurayra. These men and women who sat at the Prophet's Mosque are considered by some to be the first Sufis.
History
Origins
The current consensus is that Sufism emerged in the Hejaz, present-day Saudi Arabia, and that it has existed as a practice of Muslims from the earliest days of Islam, even predating some sectarian divides.Sufi orders are based on the that was given to Muhammad by his companions. By pledging allegiance to Muhammad, the sahabah had committed themselves to the service of God.
Sufis believe that by giving to a legitimate Sufi shaykh, one is pledging allegiance to Muhammad; therefore, a spiritual connection between the seeker and Muhammad is established. It is through Muhammad that Sufis aim to learn about, understand and connect with God. Ali is regarded as one of the major figures amongst the sahaba who have directly pledged allegiance to Muhammad, and Sufis maintain that through Ali, knowledge about Muhammad and a connection with Muhammad may be attained. Such a concept may be understood by the hadith, which Sufis regard as authentic, in which Muhammad said, "I am the city of knowledge, and Ali is its gate." Eminent Sufis such as Ali Hujwiri refer to Ali as having a very high ranking in Tasawwuf. Furthermore, Junayd of Baghdad regarded Ali as sheikh of the principles and practices of Tasawwuf.
Historian Jonathan A.C. Brown notes that during the lifetime of Muhammad, some companions were more inclined than others to "intensive devotion, pious abstemiousness and pondering the divine mysteries" more than Islam required, such as Abu Dharr al-Ghifari. Hasan al-Basri, a tabi', is considered a "founding figure" in the "science of purifying the heart".
Sufism emerged early on in Islamic history, partly as a reaction against the worldliness of the early Umayyad Caliphate and mainly under the tutelage of Hasan al-Basri.
Practitioners of Sufism hold that in its early stages of development Sufism effectively referred to nothing more than the internalization of Islam. According to one perspective, it is directly from the Qur'an, constantly recited, meditated, and experienced, that Sufism proceeded, in its origin and its development. Other practitioners have held that Sufism is the strict emulation of the way of Muhammad, through which the heart's connection to the Divine is strengthened.
Later developments of Sufism occurred from people like Dawud Tai and Bayazid Bastami. Early on Sufism was known for its strict adherence to the sunnah, for example it was reported that Bastami refused to eat a watermelon because he did not find any proof that Muhammad ever ate it. According to the late medieval mystic, the Persian poet Jami, Abd-Allah ibn Muhammad ibn al-Hanafiyyah was the first person to be called a "Sufi". The term also had a strong connection with Kufa, with three of the earliest scholars to be called by the term being Abu Hashim al-Kufi, Jabir ibn Hayyan and Abdak al-Sufi. Later individuals included Hatim al-Attar, from Basra, and Al-Junayd al-Baghdadi. Others, such as Al-Harith al-Muhasibi and Sari al-Saqati, were not known as Sufis during their lifetimes, but later came to be identified as such due to their focus on tazkiah.
Important contributions in writing are attributed to Uwais al-Qarani, Hasan of Basra, Harith al-Muhasibi, Abu Nasr as-Sarraj and Said ibn al-Musayyib. Ruwaym, from the second generation of Sufis in Baghdad, was also an influential early figure, as was Junayd of Baghdad; a number of early practitioners of Sufism were disciples of one of the two.
Sufi orders
Historically, Sufis have often belonged to "orders" known as – congregations formed around a grand master who will trace their teaching through a chain of successive teachers back to the Islamic prophet Muhammad.These orders meet for spiritual sessions in meeting places known as, or.
They strive for , as detailed in a : "Ihsan is to worship Allah as if you see Him; if you can't see Him, surely He sees you." Sufis regard Muhammad as, the complete human who personifies the attributes of Absolute Reality, and view him as their ultimate spiritual guide.
Sufi orders trace most of their original precepts from Muhammad through Ali ibn Abi Talib, with the notable exception of the Naqshbandi order, which traces its original precepts to Muhammad through Abu Bakr. However, it was not necessary to formally belong to a tariqa. In the Medieval period, Sufism was almost equal to Islam in general and not limited to specific orders.
Sufism had a long history already before the subsequent institutionalization of Sufi teachings into devotional orders in the early Middle Ages. The term tariqa is used for a school or order of Sufism, or especially for the mystical teaching and spiritual practices of such an order with the aim of seeking ḥaqīqah. A tariqa has a murshid who plays the role of leader or spiritual director. The members or followers of a tariqa are known as murīdīn, meaning "desirous", viz. "desiring the knowledge of knowing God and loving God".
Over the years, Sufi orders have influenced and been adopted by various Shi'i movements, especially Isma'ilism, which led to the Safaviyya order's conversion to Shia Islam from Sunni Islam and the spread of Twelverism throughout Iran.