Hans, King of Denmark
Hans, or sometimes called John was a Scandinavian monarch who ruled under the Kalmar Union. He was King of Denmark from 1482 to 1513, King of Norway from 1483 to 1513, and King of Sweden from 1497 to 1501. Additionally, from 1482 to 1513, he held the titles of Duke of Schleswig and Holstein, which he governed jointly with his brother, Frederick.
The three most important political goals of King John were the restoration of the Kalmar Union, reduction of the dominance of the Hanseatic League, and the building of a strong Danish royal power.
Early life and accession
John was born on 2 February 1455, probably at Aalborg in Northern Jutland. He was the third son of King Christian I of Denmark and Dorothea of Brandenburg, but the eldest to survive infancy. Dorothea was the daughter of Margrave John of Brandenburg.Negotiations on the union
Christian had his son John proclaimed as future ruler in the three kingdoms of Denmark, Norway, and Sweden. However, a rebellion in 1464 forced Christian to relinquish the Swedish crown. Christian attempted to retake Sweden in 1470, but his forces were defeated by Sten Sture the Elder at the Battle of Brunkeberg in October 1471.Upon King Christian's death in May 1481, there was no dispute over the order of succession in the kingdoms, but the accession nevertheless proved difficult. Negotiations on the terms of John's accession started between the councils of the realms and an interregnum ensued. The Oldenburgs and the Danish council wanted to reintegrate Sweden into the union but ultimately had to settle for a limited union between Denmark and Norway.
In Denmark, John was unchallenged, but the Norwegian council, dissatisfied with King Christian's previous policies, sought stronger guarantees before accepting John's rule. Union-critical factions within Norway also reached out to Sweden, and on 1 February 1482, the two kingdoms concluded a treaty in Oslo, agreeing not to proceed with the forthcoming royal election without consulting the other. In response, the Danish leadership tried to undermine this alliance by initiating separate negotiations with each kingdom. In Denmark, John was acclaimed in the spring of 1482.
A meeting between the councils of Denmark, Sweden and Norway was appointed for 13 January 1483 at Halmstad to work out John's håndfæstning, or coronation charter. When the Swedish Council failed to turn up at the meeting, the Norwegian and Danish councils proceeded to issue a joint declaration known as the Halmstad Recess. This document outlined the conditions for John's rule, strengthening the authority of the councils and affirming that the union was a personal union of three independent kingdoms. It was hoped that Sweden would later accept the same terms and thereby acknowledge John as king. John was crowned King of Denmark in Copenhagen on 18 May 1483, and King of Norway in Trondheim on 20 July.
As negotiations with the Swedish Council continued, a separate agreement known as the Kalmar Recess was drafted on 9 September 1483. Intended to complement the Halmstad Recess, it included additional guarantees aimed at limiting royal authority and safeguarding the privileges of the Swedish Council of the Realm. Among the Swedish demands was the restoration of Gotland, a condition that proved unacceptable to King John. The negotiations ultimately broke down in 1484 over the Gotland question, and John was not crowned king of Sweden until 1497. During this period, Sweden was ruled by Regent Sten Sture and the Council of the Realm.
Duchies of Schleswig and Holstein
John had also been proclaimed the future ruler of the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein during Christian I's reign. However, following the birth of his younger brother Frederick in 1471, the terms of the Privilege of Ribe allowed the duchies to elect a duke from among the sons of the late duke. Many nobles in Schleswig and Holstein favored Frederick, but John successfully argued that both royal brothers should be elected as co-dukes. Although they were initially meant to govern jointly, the duchies were divided between them in 1490 when Frederick came of age. Feeling disadvantaged with regard to the royal inheritance, Frederick later asserted claims to a share in the kingdoms as well. In response, the Diet at Kalundborg in 1494 rejected Frederick's demands and declared Denmark to be an indivisible elective monarchy.Policies
John's domestic policies were marked by economic support of the Danish merchants and by the widespread use of commoners as officials or even as councillors, something which angered the nobility. The most important of his initiatives was perhaps establishing a permanent Danish navy, one which came to play a role during his later years.In the meantime, John had initially approved to join a crusade plan as presented in Rome on 25 March 1490, in which Nordic soldiers would be part of a coalition of armies fighting the Turks of the Ottoman Empire; however, he sent a legate with a letter to Julius II to explain that he had many conflicts at home, which would prevent him from implementing such endeavor.
The Hanseatic cities were also troubled by a secret war by Danish privateers. In 1494, Ivan had imprisoned all Hanseatic merchants trading in Novgorod. At that time the position of the Hansabund was slowly but steadily declining because of changes in trade routes and the growing opposition against the Hanseatic League in the Northern European naval states.
Restoration of the Kalmar Union
As King John sought to assert his authority over Sweden and restore the Kalmar Union, he entered into an alliance with Grand Prince Ivan III of Moscow, aiming to pressure Sweden from the east. The Finnish colonization had expanded in Savo and northern Ostrobothnia over the old borders and Erik Axelsson Tott had founded the Olavinlinna Castle on the Russian side of the border in 1475. John promised Ivan that he would restore the Russo-Swedish border to the line stipulated by the 1323 Treaty of Nöteborg. At the same time, tensions between Sten and the Swedish Council of the Realm intensified, particularly over his increasingly autocratic style and conflicts with the church hierarchy. These internal divisions created an opening for John.In 1494, the Swedish and Danish councils met in Nya Lödöse and agreed to implement the 1483 Kalmar Recess. Although Sten Sture resisted, he was pressured into ratifying the agreement. A union summit was subsequently planned for Kalmar in 1495, and King John of Denmark arrived in person, expecting to meet with the Swedish Council alongside the Danish and Norwegian councils. On his way from Copenhagen to Kalmar in June 1495, John's premier vessel and flagship, the artillery-carrying carvel Gribshunden, exploded and sank at anchor near Ronneby. John himself had left the ship prior to the accident, and so was uninjured and able to continue to Kalmar by other means of conveyance. However, Sten repeatedly delayed his appearance by over a month, effectively sabotaging the negotiations. After weeks of fruitless waiting, John abandoned the summit in August and returned to Copenhagen.
In 1495, Russian forces attacked Viborg Castle, triggering the Russo-Swedish War of 1495–1497 and diverting Sten Sture's attention to Finland. Under pressure, he led a delayed and indecisive campaign, hampered by winter conditions and internal disputes. Although the immediate threat to Viborg was repelled before his arrival, Sten's cautious strategy and refusal to compensate departing nobles provoked criticism from powerful figures, including Archbishop Jakob Ulvsson. By early 1497, political support for Sten had eroded sharply, and upon returning to Stockholm, he was deposed by the council.
However, Sten Sture refused to accept the council's decision and hand over his castles. He travelled to Dalarna to rally support. King John declared war against him on March 13, and marched on Kalmar, which capitulated without resistance. He then advanced toward Stockholm. On 28 September 1497, John's army decisively defeated Sten's peasant levy from Dalarna at the Battle of Rotebro, north of Stockholm. Sten, now isolated and politically outmaneuvered, initiated negotiations. On 6 October, a settlement was reached in Klara Priory, and Sten formally recognized John as king and relinquished his regency. John entered Stockholm five days later and was crowned King of Sweden. John appointed Sten Sture as the seneschal of the realm, and Svante Nilsson as marshal, and confirmed the Kalmar Recess.
A six-year truce between Sweden and Russia had been agreed upon in March 1497 but the border remained disputed. With the Swedish crown now secured, John's interest in pursuing the earlier agreement with Ivan diminished. In the spring of 1498, Ivan's envoys arrived in Stockholm to remind John of the agreement and request a formal border demarcation, but he responded evasively. Negotiations continued in 1499 and 1500. In a letter to Ivan III, King John stated that, according to the Swedish Privy Council, the territories claimed by Russia belonged to Sweden and could not be ceded.
The settlement between John and Sten reflected a shared interest in avoiding a drawn-out conflict. While Sten was forced to surrender Västerås Castle and Dalarna, he retained strategically important holdings such as Nyköping, Rekarne, and Svartsjö. In Finland, he was granted the entire Diocese of Turku along with Norrbotten as a lifetime fief, while his wife, Ingeborg Tott, was promised Häme Castle after his death. These favorable terms highlighted John's tactical pragmatism: Sten Sture continued to serve as a counterweight to the influence of the high council, while the king avoided placing Finland under direct royal control, instead entrusting the militarily precarious eastern frontier to Sture. The arrangement was also shaped by long-term considerations: Sten Sture, now elderly and without heirs, posed little dynastic threat. The agreement disappointed some of the Swedish council nobility, especially those aligned with Archbishop Jakob Ulvsson, who had hoped for a stricter settlement and a more assertive Danish presence.