Khortha language

Khortha is an Indo-Aryan language spoken primarily in the Indian state of Jharkhand, mainly in 16 districts of three divisions: North Chotanagpur, Palamu division and Santhal Pargana. Khortha is spoken by the Sadaans as native language and used by the tribal as a link language. It is the most spoken language variety of Jharkhand.

Geographical distribution

Khortha is spoken in North Chota Nagpur division and Santal Pargana division of Jharkhand. The 13 districts are Hazaribagh, Koderma, Giridih, Bokaro, Dhanbad, Chatra, Ramgarh, Deoghar, Dumka, Jamtara, Sahebganj, Pakur and Godda.
In Bihar, districts where Khortha is spoken include Aurangabad, Gaya and Nawada.

Classification

Magahi speakers claim that George Grierson classified Khortha as a dialect of the Magahi language in his linguistic survey , while Khortha speakers do not associate themselves with Magahi and also to remove Magahi from Jharkhand. Magahi is a native language of Jharkhand, at least in four districts i.e. Garwa, Palamu, Chatra and Latehar in 2011 census native people have mentioned it as their mother tongue, and out of these four districts, three i.e. Palamau, Garwa, and Latehar have no local Khortha speakers, as they think it can endanger their native Khortha language. Also a recent study demonstrates that Khortha is more similar to other Bihari languages of Jharkhand called Sadani languages.

Literature

In 1950, Sriniwas Panuri translated Kalidasa's Meghadutam in Khortha. In 1956, he composed two works Balkiran and Divyajyoti. Bhubaneswar Dutta Sharma, Sriniwas Panuri, Viswanath Dasaundhi and Viswanath Nagar were among first people who started literature in Khortha. Some prominent writers in Khortha language are A.K Jha, Shivnath Pramanik, B.N Ohdar. For the first time, efforts were made to reach Khortha language and literature to the People of Jharkhand through the Internet by the founder of the Sarkari Library, Mr Mananjay Mahato. Khortha literature became available online for the first time due to the efforts of Mr. Mananjay Mahato.

Phonology

Consonants

Aspirated plosives /pʰ/, /dʱ/, /ɖʱ/, and /kʰ/ rarely appear in word-final position. /ɖ/ and /ɖʱ/ never stay on the same word with their allophones /ɽ/ and /ɽʱ/.
Four affricates /t͡ʃ/, /t͡ʃʰ/, /d͡ʒ/, /d͡ʒʱ/ can be found in initial, medial, and final positions. When articulating these phonemes, the blade of the tongue touches the back of the teeth-ridge. When a stop consonant is articulated, the touch continues longer, and the separation of the tongue is slower than it is for the affricates.
/s/ occurs with all positions, while /h/ is mostly found in word-initial. In rapid conversation, there seems to be a case for h-elision between vowels. Eg. /d͡ʒohɛk/ 'to wait' is realized as , and /mohor/ 'old coin' as /moːr/.
/ŋ/ is restricted to the word-final position. Breathy nasals , lateral , and flap are only attested in word-medial and word-final positions.
Glides mostly occur in intervocalic positions; however, they are also found in word-final position in a few lexical items. Inserting glides in intervocalic positions, which is common in Indo-Aryan, is not favored in Khortha.
Aspirated consonants cannot be geminated. Gemination of /ɾ/ will yield the first consonant as /r/, and the second as /ɾ/. Eg. barɾa 'banyan tree'.
Vowels

consistently occur with all vowels and positions in Khortha, although it is noted that /a/ is the most nasalized vowel in all accounts, and there is a tendency that phonemic contrast between nasalized and oral vowels is likely to be the strongest in word-medial and final positions. Some minimal and near-minimal pairs found in the corpus are listed in the table below:

Oral	Nasal
kʰaʈ	kʰãʈ
bʱagɛk	bʱãgɛk
pakʰa	pãkʰa
ɖoɽa	ɖõɽa
kʌɾʌdʒ	kʌɾʌ̃dʒ
pʊtʃʰ	pʊ̃tʃʰ
bɛg	bɛ̃g
iʈa	ĩʈa

Vowel rules

When a word root is bound with an affix that contains a vowel, the internal open central vowel /a/ of the first syllable is replaced by the mid-close central vowel. Eg. gʱaɾ + wʌin → gʱʌɾwʌin 'houses'. This process is pretty common, but it is not related to vowel harmony and is more likely due to intonation. It also does not apply to compounds and reduplicated nouns. Eg. gatʃʰ-palha 'greenery'.
Final-vowel stem, when is marked with plural suffix -wʌin, the final vowel is dropped. Eg. kaɽa + wʌin → kʌɽwʌin 'buffalos'. Root with /a/ final merges with the initial /a/ of the following element. Eg. kʰa-a → kʰa 'you eat!'.
The long open vowel is dropped when it is followed by the mid-close central vowel. In some verbs, the open central vowel is dropped in imperative constructions due to the addition of the suffix -o. Eg. kʰa-o → kʰo 'you eat!'
The nominalizing suffix -bɛ assimilates with additive clitic =o, producing the contracted version -bo 'NMLZ.ADD'.

Morphology

Nominal morphology

Pronouns

Khortha pronouns can distinguish the honorific status of the addressee and certain deictics of the third-person addressees.

Cases

The Nominative subject of an intransitive clause, transitive agent in non-past tenses, non-human and non-specific objects receive no overt marking.
Restricted in past tense constructions, the Ergative agent is marked by =ẽ, which is homophonous with the instrumental and locatives.

It seems that ergative marking is not obligatory in the Parnadiya dialect even though transitivity is prominent and the sentences are in past tenses.
In extremely rare contexts, =ẽ can occur in the present tense, but likely to express emphasis rather than ergativity.

Patient, object, indirect object arguments are indicated their syntactic roles by the Oblique case marker =ke. There is a clear preference for object marking for human indirect objects over non-humans, animate over inanimate. The hierarchy is animate human > animate nonhuman > inanimate nonhuman. Likewise, when two objects appear in the same noun phrase, then the animate/human object is obligatorily marked while the inanimate/non-human object usually remains unmarked. Consider the following example:

Pronouns and personal names are always marked with the oblique when they are the objects.

Honorificity

Verbal morphology

Person indexation

The Khortha verbs show indexation of the S/A argument, whether the argument is marked with ergative or non-ergative in other TAMs.
Note -k marks 2nd person singular agent in Parnadiya dialect.
Verbs can index both A and P when the A argument is the first person and the P argument is a third person, i.e. the 1→3 scenario.

Tense-aspect-mood

Complex predicates

Khortha complex predication employs a wide array of helper verbs that can add fuller meanings to the semantic head.

Verb	Meaning	Functional meaning as auxiliary verb
a-	'come'	Cislocative/ventive
ja	'go'	Translocative/itive
pʌhũch	'reach'	Movement towards the deictic center
paw	'to get a chance'	Permissive causative
de	'give'	Benefactive, Telicity
lag	'start, begin'	Inception
pʌɽ	'fall'	Sudden actions
par	'can, be able'	Ability
li	'take'	Autobenefactive
khoj	'want, wish, desire'	Desirative mood
rakh	'keep'	Resulting permanent state

Sample phrases

English	Khortha	Khortha
Ramu felt shy.	Ramu ke laaj laago hae.	रामु के लाज लागो हए।
Amit has courage.	Amit thhin jor he.	अमित ठिन जोर हए।
I feel shy	Hamra laaj laago hae	हमरा लाज लागो हय।
Give the horse the feed.	Ghora-ke khaay ke dahi.	घोड़ा के खाय के दही।
The child did not hit his sister.	Chhaua-ta aapan bahin-ke nai maarle hae.	छऊवा टा आपन बहिन के नाय मारले हय।
Ram’s sister wedding is tomorrow.	Kaael ram-ke bahin-ke biha hae.	काईल रामके बहिनके बिहा हय।
The boy ate a banana.	Chhourata eego kaera khaelo.	छौड़ाटा एगो कईरा खईलो।
Buy twenty five rupees’ sugar.	Pacchis taka-ke chini kinle.	पच्चीस टाकाके चीनी किनले।
Ajay wrote a letter to his mother yesterday.	Ajay kaael aapan maay-ke chitthi likhle hae.	अजय काईल आपन माय के चिट्ठी लिखले हय।