Kashaya language
Kashaya is the critically endangered language of the Kashia band of the Pomo people. The Pomoan languages have been classified as part of the Hokan language family. The name Kashaya corresponds to words in neighboring languages with meanings such as "skillful" and "expert gambler". It is spoken by the Kashia Band of Pomo Indians of the Stewarts Point Rancheria. In 2021, the number of speakers was estimated to be around a dozen.
Phonology
Vowels
Kashaya has five vowels, which all occur as short and long. In the orthography established by Robert Oswalt, long vowels are represented by a raised dot.Vowel length is contrastive in pairs such as ʔihya "bone" versus ʔihya: "wind", and dono "hill, mountain" versus dono: "uphill".
Consonants
Kashaya has the consonants shown in the chart below, following the transcription style established by Oswalt. The letter represents the affricate, which patterns phonologically as a palatal stop. The coronal stops differ not so much in the location of the contact against the top of the mouth as in the configuration of the tongue. The dental stop is described by Oswalt as post-dental among older speakers but as interdental among younger speakers more heavily influenced by English, similar to the place of articulation of. This dental stop has a laminal articulation perhaps best transcribed in IPA as. The alveolar stop is an apical articulation, more precisely. For younger speakers it resembles the English in position. This chart treats aspirated and glottalized sonorants as single segments; Oswalt analyzes them as sequences of a sonorant plus or, from which they often derive, and they are treated as such in Kashaya dictionaries.The consonants occur only in loanwords; due to the influence of English, loans from Spanish and Russian receive a pronunciation of like that in American English. The voiced stops are the realization of in onset position.
Syllable structure
In the normal case, every syllable requires a single onset consonant; no onset clusters are permitted. In most contexts, the rhyme consists of a vowel that may be long or followed by a single consonant in the coda, resulting in the possible syllables CV, CV꞉, and CVC. Examples of these structures are duwi "coyote", mo꞉de꞉ "is running ", and kʰošciʔ "to bow".A few loanwords do have an onset cluster, such as fré꞉nu "bridle" and stú꞉fa "stove". Loans may also have superheavy CV꞉C syllables, since stressed vowels in the source language are typically borrowed with a long vowel: pó꞉spara "match", kú꞉lpa "fault", pé꞉cʰka "brick". An exceptional word with CVCC is huʔúyṭʼboṭʼbo "gnat".
Superheavy CV꞉C and CVCC syllables are well attested word-finally in specific verb forms. For example, the Suppositional suffix can be final as in yielding mo꞉lansʼ "he must have run down". More typically a superheavy syllable occurs when the rightmost suffix is one of several evidential suffixes containing an vowel that deletes when no other suffix follows, such as the Circumstantial in sinamqʰ "he must have drowned" and the Visual in moma꞉y "I saw it run in".
Stress
The determination of stress is quite complex and the main stress can fall on any of the first five syllables in a phrase, depending on various factors. According to the analysis in Buckley, iambs are constructed from left to right and the leftmost foot generally receives the main stress: "I ran in", "he is peeking in there". Non-initial feet do not receive secondary stress but lead to lengthening of vowels in open syllables. The initial syllable is extrametrical unless the word begins with a monosyllabic root, as in the case of "run". For example, the footing in ca "start to cut downward" with the root "cut" skips the first syllable, while in du "keep running all the way around" this is blocked by the short root "run".The pattern is further complicated when the first foot begins on a syllable that has a long vowel, as in di꞉cʼ- "tell". If the following syllable is closed, the stress shifts to the foot that contains that syllable: "cause to bring a message out here". If the long vowel is followed by a CV syllable, i.e. if the initial sequence to be footed is CV꞉CV, the length moves rightward to create CVCV꞉ and the stress similarly shifts to the next foot: "bring a message out!". Combined with extrametricality, this can lead to stress as far in as the fifth syllable: mudu "always be too shy" from the root "be shy"; this verb forms a minimal pair with "gather", which lacks stress shift in mudu "always gather".
While iambic lengthening is determined by footing within a word, stress can be reassigned at the phrasal level across word boundaries: qʼoʔdu "be good!" where qʼoʔdi is the adjective "good" and the remainder is the imperative verb.
Phonological processes
A large number of processes affect the realization of underlying sounds in Kashaya. A representative sample is given here.- The glottalized nasals surface unchanged in the syllable coda, but change to voiced stops in the onset: cf. the root "see, look" in canʼpʰi "if he sees" and cadu "look!".
- The default vowel changes to after, and to after : cf. the imperative in hanoy-i "limp!", pʰa-nem-a "punch him!", cad-u "look!".
- Any vowel changes to /a/ after a uvular: /ʔusaq-in/ → ʔusá꞉qan "while washing the face", /sima꞉q-eti/ → sima꞉qatí "although he's asleep".
- Plain stops are aspirated in the coda: /da-hyut-meʔ/ → dahyútʰmeʔ "break it!" ; cf. /da-hyut-i/ → dahyutí "break it!".
- A uvular stop in the coda generally loses its place of articulation: /sima꞉q-ti/ → simahti "about to fall asleep". Exceptions exist before certain suffixes and in loanwords such as taqʰma "dress". Debuccalization of other stops occurs in various contexts as well.
- An aspirated stop in a prefix dissimilates from an /h/ or an aspirated stop at the beginning of the root, similar to Grassmann's Law: cf. the prefix /pʰu/ "by blowing" with aspiration in pʰu-de꞉du "be blown along" but without it in pu-hcew "a windbreak".
Morphology
Nouns
Noun morphology is modest. The main examples are prefixes that mark possession of kinship terms. The first person has several allomorphs including the prefix ʔa꞉- and CV꞉ reduplication; the latter is informal and is associated with phonologically less marked stems, no doubt derived historically from child pronunciations. The prefixes mi-, miya꞉-, ma- mark second, third, and reflexive. These prefixes occur with the suffixes -nʼ, -sʼ depending on the stem and prefix. Examples with /qa/ "grandmother" are miqasʼ "your ~", miyá꞉qasʼ "his/her/their ~", and informal ka꞉kanʼ "my grandma", based on /ka/ simplified from /qa/.Verbs
Verbs take a great variety of suffixes divided into many position classes. There are also instrumental prefixes that figure crucially in the use of many verb stems.Position classes
Oswalt identifies the following position classes; it can be seen that there is far more complexity in the set of suffixes than in the prefixes.- Prefixes
- * A — Instrumental
- * B — Plural Act
- Root
- Inner Group Suffixes
- * I — Plural Agent
- * II — Reduplication
- * III — Essive, Terrestrial
- * IV — Semelfactive, Inceptive, Plural Act, Plural Movement
- Middle Group Suffixes
- * Va — Directionals
- * Vb — Directionals/Inceptives
- * VI — Reflexive, Reciprocal
- * VII — Causative
- * VIII — Locomotory
- * IX — Durative
- * X — Distributive
- Outer Group Suffixes
- * XI — Defunctive
- * XII — Negative
- * XIII — First Person Object, Remote Past, Inferential
- * XIV — Evidentials, Modals, Imperatives, Futures, Absolutive, Adverbializers
- * XVv — Nonfinal Verb, Responsive, Interrogative
- * XVn — Subjective, Objective
- * XVb — Explanatory
Instrumental prefixes
Many verbs cannot occur without a prefix that provides information about the manner of the action described. These 20 instrumental prefixes, all of the shape CV, are the following.- ba- "with the lips, snout, or beak; by speech "
- bi- "by encircling, e.g. with the arms; by sewing, eating "
- ca- "with the rear end, a massive or bulky object, a knife"
- cu- "with a round object, flowing water, the front end; by shooting"
- cʰi- "by holding a small part of a larger object, e.g. a handle"
- da- "with the hand, paw; by waves"
- du- "with the finger"
- di- "by gravity, falling, a heavy weight"
- ha- "with a swinging motion"
- hi- "with the body"
- ma- "with the sole of the foot, claws, the butt of the hand"
- mi- "with the small end of a long object, the toes, nose; by kicking, smelling, counting, reading"
- mu- "with a quick movement, heat, light, mind or emotions"
- pʰa- "with the end of a long object, the fist; by wrapping"
- pʰi- "with the side of a long object, the eyes, an ax, a hammer"
- pʰu- "by blowing"
- qa- "between forces: with the teeth, by chewing, eating"
- si- "by water: wetting, dissolving, slipping, floating, rain, tongue"
- ša- "by a long object moving lengthwise; with a mesh"
- šu- "by pulling, pushing and pulling; with a long flexible object"