Ibadism
Ibadism is the third-largest branch of Islam whose roots go back to the Kharijite secession from the fourth Caliph, Ali ibn Abi Talib. It is a moderate subsect that has persisted and led to the creation of Ibadi communities in various areas in the Middle East and Africa.
The followers of the Ibadi sect are known as the Ibadis or, as they call themselves, The People of Truth and Integrity. Contemporary Ibadis may object to being classified as Kharijites. They are much less numerous than the two largest Muslim denominations: Sunnis—who account for 85–90 percent of the Muslim world—and Shias.
Today, the largest of these communities is in Oman. It is also practiced to a lesser extent in Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, and Tanzania.
History
Background
The Ibadis began as a moderate branch of the Kharijites, an Islamic sect that split from the Muhakkima and al-Haruriyya. These groups initially supported Ali during the First Fitna but turned away after rejecting arbitration at the Battle of Siffin in AD 657. From the Ibadis' perspective, the Muhakkimah were the only faction striving to restore the just Islamic Imamate, as it existed during the time of Abu Bakr, 'Umar, the first six years of 'Uthman's rule, and the early years of 'Ali before he accepted arbitration.The Muhakkimah's military efforts ended with their massacre by 'Ali b. Abi Talib and his forces at the Battle of al-Nahrvan, followed by another massacre at al-Nakhilah by the joint forces of Mu'awiyah and Hasan ibn Ali. After these events, the Umayyad rule became firmly established and focused on suppressing all forms of opposition. As a result, sympathizers of the Muhakkimah—referred to as 'al-Muslimun' or 'Jama'at al-Muslimin' in early Ibadhi literature—were forced to hide their faith and conduct their activities in secret.
Among the survivors of the Battle of al-Nahrawan were 'Urwah b. 'Udayyah and his brother Abu Bilal Mirdas. They continued their religious activities in Basrah, where they were known for their devotion and became leading members of the 'Jama'at al-Muslimin'. Abu Bilal was particularly influential in Basrah and was one of three men who openly commented on the first sermon of Ziyad b. Abih when Ziyad was appointed governor of Basrah, Khurasan, and Sijistan by Mu'awiyah.
It is also recorded that Abu Bilal maintained close ties with Jabir b. Zaid, often spending significant time with him. Together, they visited 'A'ishah and reproached her for her role in the Battle of the Camel. During this period, Jabir's leadership of the Muhakkimah became well established. A learned and pious man from the al-Azd tribe—the same tribe as 'Abdullah b. Wahb al-Rasibi, the last elected leader of the Muhakkimah—Jabir focused on intellectual activities. His scholarly approach allowed him to propagate and preserve Islamic teachings without arousing the suspicion of the Umayyad authorities. His position as a prominent mufti in Basrah provided him with cover and enabled him to form widespread connections with influential individuals across the Islamic world.
The Ibadi school eventually emerged as a moderate group in Basrah, grounded in the teachings of Jabir ibn Zayd, who, according to the Ibadis, became their first imam. After the Battle of Siffin, the Kharijites engaged in ongoing conflicts with both Alid and Umayyad supporters, often inciting local rebellions against Umayyad rule. Following the Second Fitna in AD 680, the Kharijites split into four main groups with varying levels of extremism. One significant division was led by Ibn al-'Azraq, who introduced doctrines that were rejected by leaders such as Jabir b. Zaid and Abdullah b. Ibadh, who upheld the original principles of the Muhakkima, according to Ibadhi tradition.
Kharijite split
The Ibadi school of Kharijites emerged after the siege of Mecca in AD 683, during the second Muslim civil war. Abd Allāh ibn Ibāḍ was part of a group of Basran Kharijites, led by Nafi ibn al-Azraq, who initially supported the defenders of Mecca against the Umayyads. However, they became disillusioned when the Meccan Caliph, Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr, refused to denounce the late Caliph Uthmān. Disappointed, they returned to Basra, where they were imprisoned by the Umayyad governor Ubayd Allah ibn Ziyad.When Basra overthrew Umayyad rule in support of Ibn al-Zubayr in late AD 683 or early 684, the Kharijite prisoners were freed. After their release, Ibn al-Azraq led many Kharijites to Ahvaz in Khuzestan, condemning the Basrans for supporting Ibn al-Zubayr and calling them "polytheists." However, Ibn Ibāḍ stayed behind in Basra and defended those who remained. He argued that the Basrans were not polytheists but guilty only of "ingratitude", a lesser offense that allowed true Muslims to live among them.
Ibn Ibāḍ also opposed other Kharijite factions. He rejected the views of ʿAbd Allāh ibn al-Ṣaffār, founder of the Sufri sect, and clashed with Abū Bayhas, leader of the Bayhasiyya sect, whose views were closer to the radical doctrines of Ibn al-Azraq.
The Ibadis distanced themselves from more extreme Kharijite beliefs, particularly on two key issues:
- Khuruj : Nafi ibn al-Azraq argued that hijrah or khuruj was mandatory and declared that Muslim opponents lived in "lands of war". He also labeled those who did not participate in revolt as idolaters. In contrast, the Ibadis, following the early Muhakkimah doctrine, believed their Muslim opponents were "infidels-in-gratitude", not polytheists, and that hijrah was not obligatory. They allowed Muslims to live among their opponents and accepted that those who did not fight could still be considered supporters of the cause, with their inaction forgiven.
- Attitude Toward Muslim Opponents: The Azraqites took a harsh stance, viewing their Muslim opponents as idolaters, while also viewing it permissible to kill women and children, take captives, and seize property. They even forbade marrying their women or inheriting from them. In contrast, the Ibadis condemned these practices as violations of Islamic principles. Both Jabir ibn Zaid and Abd Allāh ibn Ibāḍ rejected these extremist views and opposed other radical Kharijite groups, such as the Sufriyah and Najdat, despite some differences between these groups and the Azraqites.
In Basra, a moderate Kharijite doctrine emerged under Jabir ibn Zayd, influenced by the teachings of Ibn Abbas. Missionaries spread this doctrine across the Caliphate, including to Oman, Yemen, Hadramawt, Khurasan, and North Africa. Despite their efforts, the Ibadi leaders in Basra practiced kitman to avoid persecution after the Umayyads retook control of the city under Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan in AD 691.
Omani Imamate
Jābir ibn Zayd was eventually recognised as the first [|Imam of the Ibadis] although this was in a state of kitman. Ibn Zayd's criticisms of the narrations of Muhammad's companions formed the corpus of the Ibadi interpretation of Islamic law. The position of Ibadi Imam was elected, unlike the dynastic succession of the Sunnis and Shi'as, and was not exclusive, with individual communities encouraged to elect their Imam. These imams exercised political, spiritual and military functions.In 745, Talib al-Haqq established the first Ibadi state in the Hadhramaut and succeeded in capturing Yemen in 746 from the Umayyad Caliphate. The Ibadi insurrection then spread to the Hejaz, with Abu Hamza al-Mukhtar conquering Mecca and Medina. In response, the Caliph Marwan II led a 4,000-strong army and routed the Ibadis first in Mecca, then in Sana'a in Yemen, and finally surrounded them in Shibam in the western Hadhramaut in 748, defeating and killing Abu Hamza and Ibn Yahya and destroying the first Ibadi state. Problems back in their heartland of Islamic Syria led the Umayyads to sign a peace accord with the Ibadis, who were allowed to retain a community in Shibam.
A second Ibadi state was established in Oman in 750, but fell to the newly formed Abbasid Caliphate in 752. Another Ibadi state was established in Oman in 793, surviving for a century until the Abbasid recapture in 893. However, Abbasid influence after reconquest was nominal and Ibadi imams continued to wield considerable power. Ibadi imamates were re-established in subsequent centuries. Ibadis still form the majority of the contemporary Omani population and the royal family of Oman are Ibadi.
Further expansion
Ibadi missionary activity was met with considerable success in North Africa. In 757, Ibadis seized Tripoli and captured Kairouan the next year. Driven out by the Abbasid army in 761, Ibadi leaders founded a state, which became known as Rustamid dynasty, in Tahart. It was overthrown in 909 by the Fatimid Caliphate. Immediately following this period, the Ibadi faith had a continuing presence in the Sahara, as they fled the end of the Rustamid dynasty and founded the regional trading city, Sedrata, along the Trans-Saharan trade routes. Ibadi communities continue to exist in the Nafusa Mountains in northwestern Libya, the island of Djerba in Tunisia, and in the M'zab in Algeria. In East Africa, they are found in Zanzibar. Ibadi missionary activity also reached Persia, India, Egypt, Sudan, Spain and Sicily, although Ibadis communities in these regions ceased to exist.By the year 900, Ibadism had spread to Sindh, Khorasan, the Hadhramaut, Dhofar, the Imamate of Oman, Muscat, the Nafusa Mountains, and Qeshm, Hormozgan; by 1200, the sect was present in al-Andalus, Sicily, M'zab and the western part of the Sahel as well. In the 14th century, historian Ibn Khaldun made reference to vestiges of Ibadi influence in Hadhramaut, though the sect no longer exists in the region today.