Hmar language
The Hmar language is a Northern Mizo language spoken by the Hmar people of Northeast India. It belongs to the Kuki-Chin branch of this language family. Speakers of Hmar often use Mizo(Duhlian) as their second language.
The language has official status in some regions and is used in education to varying degrees. It possesses a rich oral tradition, including traditional sayings and festival songs like the Sikpui Hla.
Classification
The Hmar language is a member of the Tibeto-Burman language family. It is specifically classified under the Zohnahtlak languages group. The Zohnahtlak languages, including Hmar, are spoken in Mizoram, neighboring areas of Northeast India, and also in adjacent countries like Bangladesh and Myanmar. The language is verb-final.According to VanBik's classification of Kuki-Chin languages, Hmar is placed within the 'Central' branch. This branch also includes languages like Mizo and Lai. For context, Kuki-Chin languages are broadly divided by VanBik into Central, Peripheral, and Maraic branches. Another grouping, often termed 'Northwestern Kuki-Chin' or historically 'Old Kuki', is also recognized and is characterized by lacking some typical features of the core Kuki-Chin group, such as verb stem alternations.
The broader classification of Tibeto-Burman is a subject of ongoing scholarly discussion. Some researchers, like Blench and Post, propose the term Trans-Himalayan for the phylum to better reflect the geographical distribution and diversity of these languages, particularly highlighting the numerous languages in Northeast India that may represent independent branches and challenge traditional binary classifications that privilege Sinitic or well-known literary languages like Tibetan and Burmese. These scholars emphasize the complexity arising from extensive language contact and the need to give equal weight to lesser-documented languages in phylogenetic considerations.
Hmar, like many languages in the region, is considered to be in a developing stage and requires further standardization in several linguistic areas.
Geographical distribution
Regions and speaker numbers
The 2011 Census of India recorded 98,988 speakers of Hmar as a mother tongue. The significant dispersion of Hmar speakers may contribute to slight dialectal distinctions across different regions.Dialects
In Manipur, Hmar exhibits partial mutual intelligibility with the other Kukish dialects of the area including Thadou, Paite, Aimol, Vaiphei, Simte, Kom and Gangte languages.The Hmar language, as it is recognized today, was previously known as the Khawsak dialect. This dialect was accepted by the various Hmar groups as a common language for literary and teaching purposes, although other Hmar languages and dialects continue to be widely spoken.
History
The Hmar people were first recognized as a distinct tribal community in the North-Eastern States of India. Prior to official recognition, they were often grouped under the term 'Kuki' or 'Old Kuki,' a label applied by outsiders to various hill tribes in the region. The Government of India officially recognized the Hmar tribe by including it in the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes Lists Order, 1956. This allowed different tribes, including the Hmar, to be known by their specific names rather than generic terms.Early documentation
The Hmar language was first documented in written form in the early 20th century by George Abraham Grierson in his extensive Linguistic Survey of India.Sinlung: Traditional place of origin
Hmar tradition consistently refers to Sinlung as their ancestral homeland. Numerous songs and folktales recount their time in Sinlung and their subsequent migration. The exact location of Sinlung is a subject of scholarly debate, with several theories proposed:- It may be located in present-day Southwest China, possibly in Yunnan Province.
- The name might be derived from the Qin Dynasty.
- Etymologically, sin and lung could suggest a cave sealed with a large stone.
- One theory places Sinlung at Aopatong on the border of Burma and China, named after a chief Silung during the construction of the Great Wall of China.
- Another possibility is the present-day Sinlung near the Yulung River in Sichuan Province, China.
This suggests a departure involving overcoming obstacles and facing numerous encounters during their migration. It is believed the Hmars were part of larger waves of migration from China southwards, possibly forced out by the Ch'in Dynasty, eventually moving into Southeast Asia and then India.
Phonology
Alphabet (''Hmar Hawrawp'') and Orthography
The Hmar alphabets, known as Hmar Hawrawp, has 25 letters: 6 vowels and 19 consonants. It is a modified version of the Roman script with some diacritic marks to help pronounce the dialect.| A | Aw | B | Ch | D | E | F | G | Ng | H |
| I | J | K | L | M | N | O | P | R | S |
| T | Ț | U | V | Z | - | - | - | - | - |
Grammar
The Hmar language exhibits several notable grammatical features, common to many Tibeto-Burman languages, but also with unique characteristics. It is an agglutinative language.Agreement
Hmar demonstrates a rich agreement system. Agreement markers, often in the form of pronominal clitics, can appear on verbs and adjectives, indicating features like person and number of arguments. Unlike many Indo-Aryan languages where the presence of a lexical case marker often blocks agreement, in Hmar, the presence or absence of a postposition generally does not affect agreement. However, there are instances, particularly in relative clauses and passives, where the ergative case marker and the agreement marker are mutually dependent, meaning either both appear or both are absent.Predicate adjectives in Hmar also exhibit agreement with the noun they modify, carrying person and number agreement features that are homophonous with those found on verbs. Hmar does not have gender agreement.
Pronominal clitics
Hmar utilizes pronominal clitics that attach to verbs. These clitics can represent subjects, direct objects, indirect objects, and possessors. For example, the object agreement markers for the first person singular is -mi and for the second person singular is -ce. The third-person singular subject agreement marker is typically -a. These clitics are crucial for understanding the relationships between participants in a sentence, especially when overt pronouns are dropped.Ergativity
Hmar exhibits a split ergativity system based on person. This means that the language uses ergative case marking for some noun phrases and accusative case marking for others. When a subject is marked with the ergative case, it often triggers corresponding agreement on the verb. The interplay between ergative marking and agreement is a significant feature of Hmar syntax.Adposition incorporation
A distinctive feature of Hmar grammar is adposition incorporation. This is a process where an adposition moves from its position with a noun phrase and incorporates into the verb, often changing its form. This incorporation can have a transitivizing effect on intransitive verbs. When an adposition is incorporated, the verb it attaches to may then take an ergative subject and an object agreement clitic, indicating an increase in the verb's valency. This phenomenon is not commonly found in other language families of the Indian subcontinent.Long-distance agreement
Hmar also features long-distance agreement, where an argument in an embedded clause can trigger agreement on the predicate of the main or higher clause. This is particularly evident in constructions involving subject-to-subject raising and Exceptional Case Marking. In ECM constructions, the pronominal agreement marker of the embedded subject can appear as a clitic on the matrix verb.Pronominal strength hierarchy
In sentences with conjoined pronominal subjects, Hmar follows a pronominal strength hierarchy for agreement. The first-person subject is considered "stronger" than second- or third-person subjects, and a second-person subject is "stronger" than a third-person subject. This means that if a first-person pronoun is conjoined with a third-person pronoun, the verb will show first-person plural agreement, even if the first-person pronoun itself is null and only recoverable from the verbal agreement. The hierarchy is typically: 1st person > 2nd person > 3rd person.Morphology
Hmar morphology is characterized by agglutination, particularly in its verb system. This involves the use of prefixes and suffixes to derive various grammatical forms, including causatives.Causativization
Hmar employs both morphological and lexical strategies for forming causative verbs.Morphological causatives
Two primary morphological causative affixes are productively used:- The prefix `/sùk-/` is typically used with intransitive verbs and adjectives to form causative verbs. It generally denotes direct causation, where the causer is directly responsible for the event. For example, lìen becomes sùk-lìen. The verbal reflexive marker `/ìn-/` is usually not required with `/sùk-/` unless the construction has a reflexive meaning. However, `/sùk-/` cannot typically be used with intransitive verbs of activity or motion.
- The suffix `/-tìr/` is a morphologically regular and productive causative marker that can derive causatives from all types of non-causative verbs.\pFname="InfimateCausativization" /> Verbs causativized with `/-tìr/` obligatorily co-occur with the verbal reflexive marker `/ìn-/`, resulting in a circumfix-like structure `/ìn-...-tìr/`. For example, ṭhù becomes ìn-ṭhù-tìr. This form can express both true causation and permissive causation.
Lexical causatives
Verb stem alternation
Hmar, like other Kuki-Chin languages, exhibits verb stem alternation.General Kuki-Chin characteristics of verb stem alternation include Stem I forms often being associated with main clauses or intransitive predicates and usually having an open syllable, while Stem II forms are often associated with subordinated clauses or transitive predicates and often have a closed syllable.
In Hmar causative constructions, both Stem I and Stem II verbs can generally occur with causative morphology. For example, with the root 'eat', both ìn-fà-tìr and ìn-fàk-tìr are possible. While `/ìn-...-tìr/` can occur with Stem I, it is more commonly associated with Stem II forms. The `/sùk-/` causative can also combine with both stems.
Interaction with reflexive/reciprocal markers
The verbal reflexive/reciprocal prefix `/ìn-/` is crucial in causative constructions.- With the causative suffix `/-tìr/`, the prefix `/ìn-/` is obligatory, forming an `/ìn-...-tìr/` structure. However, this combination typically does not result in a reflexive or reciprocal meaning for the overall causative construction; the causer and causee are distinct.
- With the causative prefix `/sùk-/`, the marker `/ìn-/` is used when the causer and causee are the same, e.g., àn-ìn-sùk-lùnsèN. In non-reflexive contexts with `/sùk-/`, if `/ìn-/` occurs, it follows the causative marker, though it can often be dropped without changing meaning.
Double causatives
Hmar allows for the formation of double causatives, expressing the meaning 'X CAUSES Y to CAUSE Z'. This can be achieved in two ways:- By combining both the prefix `/sùk-/` and the suffix `/-tìr/` on primarily intransitive stative verb stems. For example, lùm can become ìn-sùk-lùm-tìr.
- By adding the causative suffix `/-tìr/` to a lexical causative verb. For example, the lexical causative ṭhèl can become ìn-ṭhèl-tìr.
Isomorphism of possessive prefixes and agreement proclitics
A notable feature of Kuki-Chin languages, including Hmar, is the isomorphism between nominal possessive prefixes and verbal subject agreement proclitics. This suggests a historical link or shared morphological origin for markers of possession on nouns and subject agreement on verbs.Case system
Beyond ergativity, Hmar employs a system of case marking to indicate the grammatical functions of nouns within a sentence. While the nominative case marker is often null, other cases such as dative and locative are marked by postpositions. The interaction between case marking and agreement is a key aspect of Hmar grammar.Writing System
The Hmar language uses a Roman script-based alphabet consisting of 25 letters, as detailed in the "Phonology" section. The Khawsak dialect has been adopted as the common standard for literary purposes and language teaching among the various Hmar groups.Early literature and publications
Early efforts in Hmar literature were significantly driven by religious purposes and the desire for literacy in the native language.- Dr. Thanglung authored a Hmar language primer titled Bu Hmasa around 1928-1929, which was instrumental in promoting literacy and is reportedly still used in primary schools in Manipur.
- Hymn books were among the earliest published materials.
- The New Testament of the Bible in Hmar was published in 1947, followed by the complete Bible in 1972.
- A notable early non-religious work was a dictionary compiled by Dr. Thanglung, a medical practitioner.
- Various community-led efforts resulted in the publication of weekly, fortnightly, monthly, and annual news magazines, though many faced challenges in sustaining publication.
Official Status and Usage
Hmar has been recognized as a language for educational purposes and as a Modern Indian Language in several states in Northeast India.Manipur
1956: The Hmar language was formally recognized by the Government of Manipur.1968: Permission was granted to teach Hmar at the primary level in Manipur.1985: Hmar was elevated to the status of an MIL and included in the High School Leaving Certificate Examination as a half-paper carrying fifty marks.1997: Hmar became a full paper in the HSLC Examinations.2000: Hmar was included at the higher secondary level.2003 onwards: Manipur University granted permission for the study of Hmar at the degree level, with examinations permitted from 2003.- There have been ongoing efforts to introduce Hmar as an Elective and Major subject in degree courses at Manipur University.
Assam
- The Government of Assam recognized Hmar as a medium of instruction via Memo No. EMI. 82/67/199 dated Shillong, 25 March 1969.1984-1985: Hmar was introduced as the medium of instruction in primary classes in the autonomous district of North Cachar Hills.
- Vernacular Middle Schools teaching in Hmar up to the Upper Primary level were established in places like Hmarkhawlien and Diphucherra in Cachar. A similar school was established in Saron but was later recognized as a Middle English School where Hmar was taught as a language paper only, due to changes in government policy regarding vernacular schools.
- Initially, Manipur textbooks were unofficially used. However, due to the need for content relevant to Assam's local history, geography, and culture, and following the National Policy on Education (1986) requiring NCERT norms, new textbooks from Pre-Primary to Secondary stages were developed by the Hmar community in Assam. The SCERT Assam later developed primers and textbooks, with Hmar adapting to these patterns.2007: The Board of Secondary Education Assam recognized and introduced Hmar as a language paper in the HSLC Examinations.2008: The Assam Higher Secondary Education Council allowed the introduction of Hmar as an MIL paper in classes XI and XII.2010: Assam University, Silchar, recognized Hmar as an MIL paper for the first Degree .
Mizoram and Meghalaya
In both Mizoram and Meghalaya, the Hmar tribe is recognized as a Scheduled Tribe. There have been efforts to introduce the teaching of Hmar language at the primary level in these states, though significant progress had not been reported by the time of V.L. Bapui's 2017 article.The earlier statement "Hmar is a recognised language in the School curriculum of Assam, Manipur and Mizoram..." requires nuance based on this source, particularly for Mizoram where introduction at primary level was still an ongoing effort.
Preservation Efforts
The Hmar language is considered endangered due to decreasing transmission among younger generations and the increasing influence of dominant regional languages such as Mizo, Manipuri, Assamese, and Bengali.Formal institutional support for Hmar language preservation is limited; however, grassroots efforts have emerged in recent years. Online communities on platforms such as WhatsApp and Facebook serve as important spaces where speakers and learners share resources, discuss grammar, and encourage the use of Hmar in daily communication. These digital groups play a vital role in sustaining interest and usage of the language, especially among younger members of the community.
The Hmar language is recognized in the school curricula of some regions and has been acknowledged as one of the Modern Indian Languages at Manipur University. However, the extent of educational support varies across different areas.
Linguists and community members emphasize the importance of documenting the language, developing educational materials, and raising awareness to help preserve Hmar and maintain the cultural identity of its speakers.
Challenges in language education
Despite progress in achieving recognition for Hmar in education, several challenges persist:Textbook Development: Preparing suitable textbooks remains a major hurdle. Adapting to national or state guidelines, which are often based on Indo-Aryan language structures, poses difficulties for a Tibeto-Burman language like Hmar with its distinct phonetic and orthographic system. While the Assam State Government has supported the development and free distribution of textbooks up to the Lower Primary level, and the Hmar community itself has developed materials, the need for standardized and contextually appropriate textbooks across all levels is ongoing.Teacher Support and Appointment: A significant challenge is the lack of government-appointed and supported teachers for Hmar language from the Upper Primary level to the Degree level in states like Assam. Often, teachers are appointed and sustained through community efforts with minimal remuneration, placing a considerable burden on the Hmar community. As of 2017, in Assam alone, Hmar could potentially be taught in approximately 90 primary schools, 39 high schools, and 15 higher secondary schools and colleges, highlighting the need for sanctioned teacher posts.These challenges underscore the need for continued institutional and community efforts to ensure the vitality and transmission of the Hmar language through the education system.