History of Alexander
The History of Alexander, also known as Perì Aléxandron historíai, is a lost work by the late-fourth century BC Hellenistic historian Cleitarchus, covering the life and death of Alexander the Great. It survives today in around thirty fragments and is commonly known as The Vulgate, with the works based on it known as The Vulgate Tradition. These works consist primarily of that of Diodorus, the Bibliotheca historica, and Quintus Curtius Rufus, with his Historiae Alexandri Magni.
Completed at some point between 309 and 301 BC, it was the most popular work depicting Alexander in its time, but is valuable today for its unique perspective on the conqueror, in particular his psychological disposition and specifics of how the soldiers under him lived. It is considered an unreliable source, with modern scholars considering Cleitarchus to have been more dedicated to writing an entertaining story than a reliable historical account. This dedication was also challenged by ancient historians such as Arrian, who wrote his The Anabasis of Alexander in what is believed to be a deliberate attempt to counter Cleitarchus' "Vulgate Tradition", and in doing so created a work regarded by modern scholars as the best source on Alexander.
Origin
The work is believed to have been written in Alexandria, perhaps having been started when Ptolemy ordered the body of Alexander brought to Egypt, and finished between 309 and 301 BC. This dating is backed by the writings of several ancient historians, in particular through the works of the same Ptolemy, who it appears corrected Cleitarchus and whose works have been dated to the late fourth century, but this has been disputed in recent years following research into the Oxyrhynchus Papyri, which suggests that he instead lived and wrote in the mid-third century BC. This source states that Cleitarchus was a tutor to the king Ptolemy IV Philopator for a few years before he died. Therefore he couldn't have been able to publish the History of Alexander at the originally accepted time of publication between 309 and 301 BC.''Vulgate Tradition''
For much of antiquity Cleitarchus' work was the main secondary source that scholars wishing to create works about the Alexandrian Period utilized, resulting in a body of works described as in the Vulgate Tradition, with the work itself being referred to as The Vulgate. These notably include the works of Diodorus in his Bibliotheca historica, and Quintus Curtius Rufus with his Historiae Alexandri Magni, but also Sisenna and Justin, alongside numerous less notable or otherwise forgotten figures.The Vulgate Tradition itself is that of the popular narrative, typically critical of Alexander, in juxtaposition to the narratives presented in less critical accounts, such as those of Arrian. It has been criticized along with the History itself for dramatizing Alexander, focusing on the lurid details and negative aspects. Conversely, it has been commended for not whitewashing Alexander's life, and including these negative details that other historians have omitted.
Synopsis
The History of Alexander is divided into thirteen books with Book One starting with Alexander's birth and Book Thirteen ending with Alexander's death.Book One (336BC-335BC)
Alexander was born in 356 and was able to claim ancestry to Heracles through his father whilst claiming Aecid ancestry from his mother. Following the assassination of his father Philip in 336, he assumes control of the Macedonian kingdom and consolidates his power whilst other Greek city-states tried to usurp his position. This is achieved through diplomacy, gifts, and warfare. Following his uniting of the city-states, Alexander begins campaigning in Thrace, but has to turn back around when a number of city-states, particularly Thebes, rebel in his absence. He besieges the Theban fort, the Cadmeia, and after three days, Alexander attacks the fort. The battle results in a Theban defeat, and their city is looted, razed, and has the citizens sold into slavery.Book Two (335BC-334BC)
Alexander convenes a council of his closest advisors to organize his campaign into Asia and hosts nine days of festivals to placate Greek officials and bolster morale in his armies before he departs. Once the celebrations are over and Alexander is prepared, he sails his army to Anatolia, lands in Troad, and disembarks his army. Darius, king of the Persian Empire, meets with his council to formulate a plan in order to deal with Alexander's landing. Memnon of Rhodes suggests that the Persians fight asymmetrically and destroy anything of use to Alexander as he moves inland, but the other members of the council agree to face Alexander's army head-on. The Battle of Granicus is the result of this decision. The Persian army massively outnumbers Alexander's forces, but is quickly routed when the Satrap of Ionia, Spithridates, alongside other Persian nobility, die fighting Alexander. For his leadership and personal accomplishments against the Persians that day, Alexander received laurels. The Persians lost ten thousand men in battle and another twenty-two thousand were taken into captivity.With the Persian army retreating, Alexander takes the opportunity to push further inland. He enters Lydia and occupies Sardis when its Satrap, Mithrenes, surrenders the city and its treasury to him. During this time, Memnon and the Persian forces that retreated from the Battle of Granicus regrouped at Miletus. Alexander besieges the city from the land and sea. Eventually, his army collapses the walls of the city and forces the city to surrender. Following this battle, Alexander dismissed the majority of his navy. Memnon managed to escape the siege with some of his troops, and then establishes himself and his army in the Carian city of Halicarnassus. During this time, Memnon sends his wife Barsine and his children to live with Darius. This is done in order to both ensure their safety and to serve as hostages so Memnon can maintain his position as supreme commander of the Persian forces in the region. Alexander eventually reaches Halicarnassus, occupying and winning the support of multiple cities and the support of the Carian nobility before reaching the city. He besieges the city, but after a number of skirmishes, the Persians under Memnon retreat to the island of Kos. Out of irritation, Alexander razes the lower part of the city.
Book Three (334BC-333BC)
Memnon receives funding, troops, and three hundred ships from Darius. He uses these forces to capture many Greek islands. No major resistance can be mustered against his campaign and he reaches as far as the island of Euboea until he contracts and dies from an illness, leaving the Persian army without a commander. Alexander has the Lyncestian Alexander arrested under the suspicion that he was planning a rebellion against him in Macedonia. Some time after issuing this order, he reaches and occupies the city of Gordion, which has a knot that may determine who would control Asia. Instead of unravelling the knot, he cuts it apart with his sword to fulfill the prophecy. Following this, Alexander marches into Cappadocia with his army. Whilst this is happening, Darius debates with his council on who would next lead the Persian army, whether that be himself, or someone else chosen by his council. Charidemus the Athenian advocates that he should lead the army, but ends up being executed after he goes into a tirade on the council and Darius. Darius is then appointed as the commander of the army, which consists of 400,000 infantrymen including his Immortals and 1000,000 cavalry. and marches to the Euphrates River.Upon receiving the news of Darius marching, Alexander marches his army to meet his. He attempts to wade across the Cydnus River in Tarsus, but the water is freezing cold and he falls ill and the army is forced to encamp whilst Alexander is nursed back to better health by Philip the Physician. However, Parmenion, a lieutenant close to Alexander, casts suspicion on Philip's loyalty to Alexander, implying that he might try to kill instead of heal him. Alexander insists that Philip works to heal him and he succeeds, whereupon he is admitted into Alexander's council of Friends.
Book Four (333BC-332BC)
Alexander occupies Issus and establishes his camp in anticipation of a battle with Darius. During the wait, his army receives a letter from Darius imploring that one of his Persian men by the name of Sisines betray Alexander. After a period of waiting where Sisines did not proclaim his loyalty to him, Alexander has him executed. During this time, Darius is getting closer to Issus, and leaves his supply train and non-combatants in Damascus. He proceeds to Cilicia to fight Alexander, who begins to withdraw to a better position to fight the numerically superior Persian army. Not all of his men can keep up during the retreat, and some of Alexander's men are captured and interrogated. They reveal where Alexander established his camp, which was on an open plain. Alexander marches his army to meet Darius. The two armies meet and begin the Battle of Issus after Darius and Alexander arrange their forces and deliver speeches. At the beginning of the battle, Alexander took his personal cavalry and the rest of his best cavalry forces to personally fight Darius. He is quickly tied down in melee and his chariot is disabled. He forced to retreat on horseback before he is killed, causing his army to route. During the route, the Persian supply train and Darius' family is captured. The battle is a resounding defeat for the Persians, with 110,000 Persians dead compared to Alexander's 4,500 dead. Alexander treats Darius' family with respect during their capture, going as far as to pay the women expensive dowries to placate them. As Alexander's army regroups, Darius reaches Babylon and begins to both correspond with Alexander in an attempt to purchase back his family and rally his army.Similarly to the aftermath of the Battle of the Granicus, Alexander makes greater territorial gains following the Persian defeat. In the aftermath, Alexander enters Phoenicia and appoints Hephaistion as the ruler of Sidon. After this, he rapidly takes over Syria, save for the island city of Tyre, which stubbornly holds out against Alexander's army in a siege. Because Alexander dismissed the majority of his navy, he couldn't sail his army to the island. Instead he is forced to build a land bridge, but this is contested and stalled by the Tyrians and their naval power as well as bad weather. As the siege dragged on, Alexander deliberates lifting the siege due to the time and resources it has taken, but he decides it would be too big of a blow to his reputation to give up. Instead, he has new boats and siege engines built, and personally leads the charge into breaches made in the walls of Tyre. Out of irritation, Alexander crucifies 2,000 Tyrians and sells the remaining citizens into slavery.