Han-Zhao
The Han-Zhao, or Former Zhao, was a dynastic state of China ruled by the Liu clan of Chuge-Xiongnu ethnicity during the Sixteen Kingdoms period of Chinese history. In Chinese historiography, it was given two conditional state titles, the Northern Han for the state proclaimed in 304 by Liu Yuan, and the Former Zhao for the state proclaimed in 319 by Liu Yao. The reference to them as separate states can be misleading, given that when Liu Yao changed the name of the state from "Han" to "Zhao" in 319, he treated the state as having been continuous from when Liu Yuan founded it in 304; instead, he de-established his imperial lineage from the Han dynasty and claimed ancestry directly from Modu Chanyu.
The reason it is also referred to as "Former Zhao" in historiography is to distinguish it from the Later Zhao founded by Shi Le in 319, which was also known officially as "Zhao". Since both the Former Zhao and Northern Han were ruled by the same family, Chinese scholars often conditionally combined them into a single Han-Zhao regime. Numerous Western texts refer to the two states separately; others referred to the Han state as the "Northern Han".
During the Han period, the capital was frequently moved around Shanxi before finally settling in Pingyang. The Han was a driving force during the upheaval of the Five Barbarians, as they brought the Disaster of Yongjia and demise of the Western Jin dynasty by 317. At the height of its power, the Han ruled Shanxi, Shaanxi, eastern Gansu, and large parts of Shandong, Hebei, and Henan. After Jin Zhun's coup in 318, the empire, which renamed itself to Zhao in 319, was split into two between Liu Yao and the warlord, Shi Le. Liu Yao moved the capital to the west in Chang'an, retaining Shaanxi and eastern Gansu, while the eastern portion of the empire fell to Shi Le's Later Zhao dynasty.
History
Five Divisions
Following the break-up of the Xiongnu Empire in the 1st century, the Southern Xiongnu branch surrendered to the Han dynasty and were resettled in the northern border commanderies. Under their chanyu, the Southern Xiongnu acted as a Han vassal state, providing assistance in defending the frontiers from nomadic forces. They settled down and fully took up agriculture, but kept a few aspects of their former nomadic lifestyle such as horse breeding. Relations with the Han were often times unstable with poor living conditions on the borders and the Chinese court meddling in their politics leading to several rebellions. In 188, just as the Han dynasty was about to fall into political turmoil, the Southern Xiongnu collapsed after dissenters within their ranks –allied with the rebelling Xiuchuge people– expelled their Han-backed chanyu and dissolved his government.In 216, after the warlord, Cao Cao unified northern China, he had the exiled chanyu, Huchuquan detained as an honoured prisoner at Ye. He then reorganized what remained of the Southern Xiongnu into the Five Divisions around Taiyuan Commandery in Bing province. Each division was led by a commander, who were nobles from the tribes and were in turn supervised by a Chinese marshal. Huchuquan's uncle, Qubei was also sent to oversee the Five Divisions. No new chanyu was proclaimed after Huchuquan died, and the Five Divisions remained subservient to the Cao Wei dynasty.
During the Jiaping era, the Five Divisions became a concern for the Chinese court as the Commander of the Left Division, Liu Bao unified them and was mobilizing a great army. The Wei and later the Western Jin intervened, gradually forcing them back into five. Five Divisions nobility had to send their children as hostages to the capital, Luoyang, including Liu Bao's son, Liu Yuan. Sinicization was evident among the elites; Liu Yuan became proficient in the Confucianist classics and befriended members of the Chinese aristocracy such as the Wang clan of Taiyuan. He was even considered for the post of commander of the Jin forces for the conquest of Eastern Wu but was later dismissed because of his ethnicity.
Nonetheless, among the Five Divisions, a sense of separate identity from the Chinese was retained. Discontent towards Jin rule and of their subordinate position prompted them to seek an independent or self-governing entity. As one of the elites, Liu Xuan, puts it:
After Liu Bao's death, Liu Yuan returned to the Five Divisions and inherited his position. Liu Yuan's lineage is debated by scholars. The traditional view states that he was the grandson of the penultimate chanyu, Yufuluo, and thus a direct descendant of the imperial Luandi clan. However, some modern historians have challenged this claim, pointing out discrepancies within the records. Liu Yuan and his family were referred to in several passages as Chuge, also known as the Xiuchuge people that overthrew the Southern Xiongnu chanyu in 188. These historians speculate that Liu Yuan had fabricated his lineage to the chanyu for legitimacy when he rebelled.
Han (304–319)
The Five Divisions and other non-affiliated hu tribes in Bing began staging revolts against the Jin. Their close proximity to the Chinese heartland worried a few ministers in the court, who unsuccessfully pushed for their resettlement outside the frontiers. Developments in the War of the Eight Princes finally favored the Five Divisions, as infighting between the Jin princes over control of Emperor Hui led to civil wars and widespread famines in northern China. In 304, the Five Division's elites contacted Liu Yuan, who was serving as a general under the Prince of Chengdu, Sima Ying at Ye, and offered him to become their rebellion's leader. Liu Yuan agreed and took advantage of a commission from the desperate Sima Ying who was just being driven out of his base to gather 50,000 warriors. At Lishi, Liu Yuan declared himself the Grand Chanyu.Later that year, Liu Yuan proclaimed himself the "King of Han," the same first title used by Emperor Gaozu of Han. As a descendant of the chanyu, Liu Yuan also claimed descent from the Han dynasty, as the chanyus used to marry Han princesses through marriage alliances. By portraying his state as a restoration of the Han, Liu Yuan was able to establish his legitimacy and potentially win over support from the Han Chinese. Liu Yuan honored the emperors of Western, Eastern and Shu Han, and in 308, he elevated himself to Emperor of Han.
Anti-Jin sentiment grew as the civil wars continued, leading to more rebellions on the North China Plain. To bolster their numbers, Liu Yuan welcomed these rebels to join his ranks regardless of their ethnicity, such as the Chinese bandit, Wang Mi and the Jie former slave, Shi Le. To ensure their loyalty, they were given high ranks and full command over their armies, but this practice also meant that they were also essentially warlords as the Han court had no actual means to restrain them. In 308, the Han conquered Pingyang Commandery, where they moved their capital to Puzi and then to Pingyang city, pressuring the Jin as they brought themselves closer to Luoyang.
Liu Yuan died in 310 and was succeeded by his son Liu He. A week into his reign, He attempted to purge all his brothers before one of them, Liu Cong, retaliated and killed him. He offered the throne to his half-brother, Liu Ai, who rejected it. After, Liu Cong took the throne for himself while appointing Ai as his crown prince. He then intensified his attack on Luoyang, which had been left exposed by the departure of the Jin imperial army and a deadly famine. In 311, Shi Le annihilated the Jin imperial army at the Battle of Ningping, depriving Jin of its main force in the north. Han forces led by Wang Mi, Huyan Yan and Liu Yao then descended upon Luoyang, capturing the defenseless city and Emperor Huai in an event known as the Disaster of Yongjia.
Despite the symbolic victory, Jin forces continued to resist in northern China, with Emperor Min being installed at Chang'an in 312. More concerning was Shi Le gaining control of a significant part of the eastern empire after assassinating his fellow warlord, Wang Mi, and absorbing his army. Liu Cong, fearing that Shi Le may outright rebel, did not punish him, while Wang Mi's subordinate, Cao Ni continued to hold on to the Shandong region. In the west, Liu Cong heavily entrusted his cousin, Liu Yao, to lead the war against Emperor Min. After several years of campaigning, Liu Yao captured Chang'an in 316, ending the Western Jin dynasty. Both Emperor Huai and Min suffered similar fates; they were forced to serve as cupbearers for Liu Cong before they were executed out of fear they would rebel. After Emperor Min's capture, the imperial Sima family reestablished itself as the Eastern Jin dynasty in 318 at Jiankang, south of the Yangtze river.
Within the Han court, Liu Cong also faced strong dissidence from his own ministers. Records depict him as a hedonistic ruler with a violent temperament, but restrained himself under pressure from his officials during his early reign. In his later reign, he had the unusual practice of having three empresses at a time, and he entrusted political affairs to his eunuchs and consort kins, which severely divided the court. He also began empowering his eldest son, Liu Can, threatening Liu Ai's position as crown prince. This power struggle culminated in a brutal purge in 317 orchestrated by Liu Can and Liu Cong's consort kins which saw Liu Ai and several prominent ministers executed.
After Liu Cong's death in 318, his successor, Liu Can and the rest of the imperial family in Pingyang were massacred in a coup by a powerful consort kin, Jin Zhun. Jin Zhun declared himself Heavenly King of Han and invited the Eastern Jin court to assist him, but was ignored. Meanwhile, both Liu Yao and Shi Le combined their forces to oppose Jin Zhun. During the campaign, Liu Yao was acclaimed the new emperor by surviving Han officials fleeing from Pingyang. The rebellion was quickly defeated by the alliance, and Jin Zhun and his family were all killed.