Akani (Arcania)


Akani, also known as Arcania, Haccany, Acanny, Accanisten, Acanij or Arcany, refers to a 15th–17th century complex of inland polities in what is now southern Ghana, described in early Portuguese and Dutch sources. The polities were united by shared language, religious beliefs, and gold-based commerce.
"Arcania" is interpreted by historians as a European term for the Akan-speaking gold producers of the Ofin, Pra, and Birim basins. The existence of Akani in European and African sources has led to different interpretations. Some historians describe Akani as a loose trading confederation. Others argue it may once have been a unified inland kingdom that later fragmented into distinct polities under both external and internal pressures.

Etymology

In Twi, the word Akan-ni means “an Akan person,” formed from Akan plus the suffix -ni. The plural form is Akanfoɔ, using the suffix -foɔ, which also appears in names like Eguafo and Twifo.
K. Y. Daaku recorded in 1969 that Adanse informants explained Akan as “the Twi-speaking people.” When asked why the term Akanfoɔ was preferred over Twifoɔ, they replied: “after God created the earth, he created the Akans. Thus Akan signifies people.” In Twi the root kan means “first,” so Akanfoɔ translates as “the first people.” In the nineteenth-century Gold Coast it was rendered in English as “pioneers” or “aborigines.”

History

Early Portuguese references (1505–1548)

The earliest European reference to the Akan appears in the writings of Portuguese navigator Duarte Pacheco Pereira, who, between 1505 and 1508, identified the Haccanys among various interior merchant groups in his geographical treatise Esmeraldo de Situ Orbis. He writes:
“The merchants belong to various tribes: the Bremus, Haccanys, Boroes, Mandinguas, Cacres, Andese, or Souzos… They bring their gold to be bartered at the Castle of São Jorge da Mina and at the fortress of Axem.”
The groups are believed to correspond to interior communities involved in the early gold trade. "Bremus" refers to Abrem, "Haccanys" to the Akan, "Boroes" to the Bono, "Mandinguas" to the Mandinka, "Cacres" to Akrokerri, and "Andese" or "Souzos" to Adansi. J. D. Fage’s similar analysis further aligns "Cacres" with Inkassa and identifies the "Souzos" as possibly Jalonke or Soso.
According to Portuguese records the Haccanys were the already leading inland gold traders before the construction of forts like São Jorge da Mina. By 1515, Portuguese notes from Elmina document sustained trade with Akani merchants. In 1517 and 1519, envoys from an inland king arrived at the coast, followed by reciprocal gifts in 1520. Around the same period, an Akani merchant named João Serrão, allied with the king of Fetu, led a revolt aiming to expel the Portuguese from the coast. In 1548, Portuguese contacts described "civil wars among the Akani," which implied there were multiple competing Akan factions or states in the region. Mid-16th-century sources recognized territories such as Nkran and surrounding regions as part of what they called “Akani.” A 1557 letter by Governor Afonso Gonçalves Botafogo distinguish the coast into two zones: from Axim to Elmina, and from Elmina inland toward “Cara,” a term used for the Akani interior, with multiple references were made to inland rulers known as "kings of the Acane Grandes and Acane Pequenos."

Dutch encounters and records (1602–1679)

In 1602 the Dutch trader and writer Pieter de Marees documented one of the earliest Dutch descriptions of the inland Akani, which he refers to as the Accanisten.
In his accounts, Marees describes the Accanisten as dominant inland intermediaries who regulated gold trade routes between Elmina and other coastal forts. He observed that the inland Accanist language served as the basis for "Fantijnsch", which was widely spoken on the coast. He also noted that the chiefs in the Gold Coast traveled with adorned swords, wore gold jewelry, and were accompanied by servants. Marees would go on to illustrate nobles with gold regalia, ceremonial swords, and woven attire. By the early 17th century, Dutch cartographers began refining their understanding of the Gold Coast, and in 1629, a map distinguishes three inland labels, "Akan", "Acanij", and "Great Acanij".

Akani Wars of 1693–1696

By the late 17th century, the label "Akani" became increasingly associated with the Assin states, particularly the polity centered at Kushea under the leadership of Agyensam. The Akani War of 1693–96 began as a conflict between Assin and Etsi, but quickly expanded into a broader regional struggle as the inland Assin sought to secure trade access to the coast.
When Fetu, allegedly influenced by the Dutch, blocked Assin merchants from reaching Cape Coast, the Assin allied with Asebu and received military assistance from the English at Cape Coast Castle. Their forces invaded Fetu, expelled the pro-Dutch king, and installed a new ruler loyal to the English. Despite the victory, conflict with Etsi continued for another two years, disrupting trade routes and drawing in Fante allies on the side of Assin.
The war culminated in 1696 with the formal submission of Etsi to Fante leadership. In a diplomatic ceremony at Mankessim, Etsi rulers swore never to obstruct inland traders or act independently of Fante authority. The agreement ended the conflict and secured Assin merchants' access to the coast, affirming the growing military and commercial influence of both the Assin and the Fante during the late 17th century.

Divisions

The label Akani was applied to Akan gold traders from several different states who appeared on the coast using the same language and trading practices. As a result, some European writers treated Akani as a single unit and did not distinguish between individual states such as Adanse, Denkyira, Assin, or Akyem. By the late seventeenth century, Dutch sources divided the Akan lands into three groups, identified as the Crysakeese, Cocoriteese, and Akimse Akkanists.

Adanse

The largest of the Akani states was Adanse, it was located north of the Ofin and Pra rivers. In Akan cosmology, Adanse is where the deity Odomankoma began the creation of the world and the formation of clans, kinship structures, and political customs. Many of the Akan ruling clans trace their lineages to Adansemanso, Akrokerri, Ayaase, Ahensan, Dompoase, and Sodua. It formed the northern part of the Akani confederacy and occupied the most important gold-producing zones of the forest interior. During the second half of the seventeenth century, warfare involving Denkyira disrupted Akani trade and led to Adanse’s defeat in 1659, after which it became a vassal state and lost control over its gold resources and became a vassal state.

Akyem

Akyem was identified as Great Akani on the 1629 Dutch map and was regarded by European traders as one of the wealthiest inland gold-producing areas of the Gold Coast. Its importance came from control over gold routes linking the Pra–Birim basin to coastal markets. During the late seventeenth century, Akyem's leadership became unstable, and was divided between two states, Abuakwa and Kotoku. The division weakened Akyem and allowed rival states, like the Akwamu, to take advantage of internal disagreements. By the early eighteenth century, pressure from neighboring powers pushed the two divisions toward closer cooperation.

Assin

The Assin states of Apemanim and Attandansu were identified as Little Akani in Portuguese and Dutch sources. During the seventeenth century, they formed the southern part of the Akani region. In 1660, Wilhelm Johann Müller referred to Assin as Assingrud, which he described as the “first land of the great kingdom of Accania'. According to him, Assin did not produce gold itself but functioned as a carrier state, transporting gold from mining areas farther north. Assin oral traditions recall long-distance trading connections with Tekyiman, Berekum, and Salaga. In 1698, they were defeated by Denkyira after a series of wars and were reduced to a vassal state. An Assin proverb, Enam sika pesɛw na Asinman boɛ, reflects the association between gold and the state’s downfall.

Denkyira

Denkyira was at first a subject state of Adanse, and little was known of the state until the war of 1657-58 when they defeated Adanse. By the late seventeenth century, Denkyira had become the most powerful inland state in the region. It forced tributary demands on neighboring states like the Adanse, Wassa, Sefwi, Aowin, Assin, and the early Asante states. Its heavy tribute demands created widespread resentment among vassal states. In the late seventeenth century, resistance to Denkyira rule increased, resulting in its defeat by Asante between 1699 and 1701.

Society

described Akanist merchants as both traders and social elites. They came to the coast with large groups of slaves and armed followers, wearing fine cloths over their shoulders and carrying ceremonial swords or staffs. According to European traders, they exchanged high-quality gold for imported iron, brass, textiles, and liquor. Observers noted that they relied on interpreters from Accra, adjusted weight systems to their advantage, and sometimes drank heavily before returning inland.

Culture

Akani captains and brokers lived in large, well-furnished houses in the coastal ports, some built of stone or clay with wide courtyards and guarded entrances. According to observers, they displayed their wealth at public festivals. At the Akwasi festival in Afutu, brokers paraded their families, slaves, and riches before large crowds in elaborate processions. According to Ray Kea, the fortunes of leading captains were immense. Jan Clasen Cutterique, a captain of the Cape Coast Akani in the 1660s, reportedly paid a fine of 522,240 dambas of gold to the Afutu king without difficulty, a sum equal to the yearly wages of thousands of artisans. Captains earned money from brokerage fees, customs dues, stipends paid by European companies, and direct trade profits, making them among the wealthiest men in seventeenth-century coastal society.