Inquisition in France


was one of the first countries where the papal inquisition was established in the 13th century. This ecclesiastical judicial institution was created to combat heresies. The southern region of France, Languedoc, was the primary center of inquisition activity in Europe until the mid-14th century. Most of the preserved sources concerning the inquisition originate from this region. However, the history of the French Inquisition spans until the end of the 17th century and also encompasses other areas of the country.
Territorially, the jurisdiction of the French Inquisition extended beyond the borders of the Kingdom of France. French inquisitors also had authority over the western, French-speaking regions that were part of the Holy Roman Empire. The structure of the French Inquisition can be divided into four major areas:
Although the division between northern and southern parts of the Kingdom of France was not formally maintained beyond the first two decades of the inquisition's existence in France, the local conditions in Languedoc were significantly different from those in the north. By around 1330, this division lost its importance.

Heretics in France

In the late Middle Ages, France was one of the countries most affected by the presence of non-Orthodox religious movements that opposed the Catholic Church. As early as 1022, in Orléans, a group of about a dozen heretics, primarily among the canons, was discovered. They denied, among other things, the reality of Christ's suffering and resurrection. Most of them were burned at the stake by order of King Robert II of France. This was the first known instance of such a penalty being applied to heretics in Western Europe. A few years later, Bishop Gerard of Cambrai and Arras discovered and arrested a group of heretics in his diocese who rejected the sacrament of marriage, but they submitted to his authority and made an Orthodox confession of faith. In the first half of the 12th century, unorthodox preachers like Henry the Monk, Pierre de Bruys, and Éon de l'Étoile gathered followers in various parts of France. However, their movements did not survive their deaths.

Cathars

From the mid-12th century, the dualist sect of the Cathars is noted for its presence in Languedoc, where it gained exceptionally strong standing. Following the Council of Saint-Félix, it established its own church structures in Languedoc with bishops in Albi, Toulouse, Carcassonne, and Agen. The sect may have reached the northern part of the country even earlier, as the heretics captured in Soissons in 1114 likely belonged to it, though its influence was less significant there compared to Languedoc.
The development of the Cathar heresy in Languedoc was facilitated by the low moral and intellectual standards of the local clergy and the favorable attitude of a considerable portion of local feudal lords. The asceticism of the Cathar Perfect contrasted with the lifestyle of many Catholic priests, including bishops. The rulers of Toulouse tolerated the sect's growth, and some members of the ruling family even supported it. Local ecclesiastical authorities also did not take any remedial actions for a long time, especially since there were no prominent figures in the episcopate at that time. In 1145, Bernard of Clairvaux preached against the heretics in Toulouse, and in 1165, Catholic bishops held a public debate with the heretics at the synod in Lombez, trying to persuade them to abandon their heresy. However, the effects of these initiatives were, at best, temporary. In Languedoc, there were no attempts to bring heretics to trial. Unlike in northern and eastern France, there were no lynchings, indicating that the lower classes were also favorably disposed towards the Cathars, also known as Albigensians from their main center in Albi.
The Cathar heresy was condemned at the council in Tours in 1163 and again at the Third Council of the Lateran in 1179. In 1178, papal legate Cardinal Pietro da Pavia visited Languedoc, and in 1181, Cardinal Henry of Marcy. These legates were the first to take, albeit on a small scale, repressive measures against the Cathars of Languedoc. Henry of Marcy led an armed expedition against Lavaur and only retreated when two Cathar Perfects were handed over to him. Both heretics converted to Catholicism and became canons in Toulouse. Cardinal Henry's expedition set a precedent for the use of the armed instrument of the crusade against heretics, whereas previously it had been reserved for the fight against infidels, primarily to liberate or defend the Holy Land.

Synod of Verona in 1184

In 1184, at the Synod of Verona, Pope Lucius III once again condemned the Cathars and established rules for episcopal courts to handle cases of heresy. Bishops were required to visit their dioceses to search for heretics. If suspects were identified, an investigation was to be conducted, and the guilty were to be summoned to convert. If they refused, the heretics were to be handed over to secular authorities, who were obliged to cooperate with the bishops in combating heresy. The synod also condemned the Waldensian evangelical movement that was growing in southeastern France, for preaching without authorization. At that time, the differences between the Waldensians and the church were primarily disciplinary, but from that point on, they increasingly diverged from Rome doctrinally as well.

Catholic missions in Languedoc

The establishment of the principles of episcopal inquisition in 1184 had almost no immediate consequences in Languedoc. The local bishops were mainly interested in the income from their dioceses, some of which were in financial trouble, rather than their pastoral duties. The situation changed with the pontificate of Innocent III, who dismissed several bishops and appointed new ones and sent Cistercian missions to Languedoc to convert heretics. From 1205, Dominic de Guzmán, the founder of the Dominican Order, also worked in the Toulouse area with the same purpose, although his order was formally approved only by the next pope, Honorius III, in 1216. In 1208, a group of Waldensians led by Durand of Huesca submitted to the church, founding a community of "poor Catholics".

Episcopal inquisition in Champagne (1197–1208)

In northern France, several bishops took inquisitorial action against the Cathars. Between 1197 and 1208, numerous trials took place in Champagne, resulting in the burning of several people. The most active in combating heresy was Bishop Hugo of Auxerre.

Crusades against the Cathars (1209–1229)

In 1208, a knight of Count Raymond VI of Toulouse murdered Papal Legate Pierre de Castelnau. Pope Innocent III, who had already accused the count of supporting heresy, took this as a provocation and declared a crusade against the Cathars. Crusader armies, led by Simon de Montfort, committed numerous massacres, the most infamous being the Massacre at Béziers in 1209. In 1215, Innocent III recognized Simon as the ruler of Toulouse, but Simon was killed during the siege of Toulouse in 1218. The crusade, formally aimed at fighting heretics, effectively turned into a struggle for control over southern France.
After Simon's death, Count Raymond VI regained control over Languedoc for a few years. A second "crusade" in 1219 ended in failure. However, in 1226, another campaign was organized, led by King Louis VIII of France. Although the king died during the expedition, his forces continued the conquest. Ultimately, in 1229, a peace treaty was signed in Paris, under which the new Count Raymond VII renounced a large part of his lands in favor of the king or the church, with the remaining portion to pass to Alphonse, brother of King Louis IX, upon Raymond's death. The count also pledged to combat heretics. That same year, a synod was held in Toulouse, presided over by Bishop Folquet de Marselha and Papal Legate Cardinal Romano Bonaventura. Many witnesses and suspects of heresy were interrogated during the sessions, and detailed regulations for dealing with heretics were enacted. All the suspects confessed and renounced heresy before the bishop and the legate, and as penance, they had to wear two penitential crosses on their clothing.

Repression from 1229 to 1233

In the following years, repression continued. Local feudal lords became much more involved in pursuing heretics. Several armed expeditions by the count and his vassals after 1229 are recorded in sources, resulting in the capture and burning of Cathar Perfects, including the execution of one of the main Cathar leaders from Agenais, Vigouroux de la Bacone, in Toulouse in 1233. The new Bishop of Toulouse, Raymond of Fauga, was from the Dominican Order. In 1233, Pope Gregory IX decided to introduce a new repressive instrument in France to support the previously ineffective episcopal courts. In April 1233, he sent a letter to the French bishops informing them of the assignment of the task of combating heresy to the Dominicans, instructing the provincial superior of the Dominicans in Toulouse to select several monks for this task. In northern France, the pope personally appointed from the Dominican convent in Besançon as papal inquisitor for the metropolises of Sens, Rouen, Bourges, and Tours, as well as the County of Flanders. Thus, France came under the activity of papal inquisitors.

1233–1330

Languedoc

Beginnings of the inquisition in Languedoc (1234–1242)

In January 1234, Romeu de Llivia, the Dominican provincial superior of Provence, appointed the prior of Toulouse, Pons of St. Gilles, along with Peter Cell and William Arnold as inquisitors for the dioceses of Toulouse and Cahors. A month later, Papal Legate John of Bernin, Archbishop of Vienne, appointed another Dominican, Arnold the Catalan, as inquisitor for the Diocese of Albi. These inquisitors promptly began their work. Initially, they supported the inquisitorial activities of Bishop Raymond in Toulouse but took the initiative in other areas such as Albi, Moissac, and Cahors. However, most of the early verdicts were in absentia condemnations of those who did not appear upon summons and the deceased heretics, as the Cathars still had strongholds like Montségur where the inquisitors could not reach. The practice of exhuming and burning the bones of the deceased caused significant outrage, such as the expulsion of Arnold the Catalan from Albi in 1234 after he ordered the exhumation of a woman's remains from the local cemetery.
On Good Friday in 1235, many people in Toulouse voluntarily approached the inquisitors to testify about heretics. This information led to an expanded investigation in the Diocese of Carcassonne and summons of 12 respected citizens in Toulouse, who refused to appear. The city authorities supported them and expelled the Dominicans from Toulouse in autumn 1235. Pope Gregory IX intervened, and the Dominicans returned in 1236. John of Bernin appointed another inquisitor, the Franciscan.
In 1236, Raymond Gros, a senior Cathar Perfect, unexpectedly surrendered to the inquisitors in Toulouse and provided extensive testimonies implicating many individuals. Over the next two years, based on his testimonies, the remains of dozens of deceased Cathars were exhumed and burned, and many living ones were condemned, mostly in absentia. In 1238, under pressure from Count Raymond VII, who was antagonistic toward the Dominicans, Gregory IX agreed to suspend the inquisition in Toulouse. The count's support was needed by the pope in his dispute with Emperor Frederick II. The suspension lasted until 1241 when William Arnold and Stephen of Narbonne resumed their activities around Montauban. This time, over 700 heretics voluntarily came forward and confessed in exchange for leniency. However, Cathars who did not surrender felt threatened and decided to counteract the inquisition. In May 1242, the inquisitors were treacherously murdered at Avignonet castle by knights belonging to the Cathar sect, who then sought refuge at Montségur, the main Cathar stronghold.