Epithets of Inanna

Epithets of Inanna were titles and bynames used to refer to this Mesopotamian goddess and to her Akkadian counterpart Ishtar. In Mesopotamia, epithets were commonly used in place of the main name of the deity, and combinations of a name with an epithet similar to these common in ancient Greek religion are comparatively uncommon. Inanna had more titles than any other Mesopotamian deity. They pertained to her associations with specific cities or areas, such as Uruk, Zabalam, Akkad, Nineveh, or the Sealand. Others instead highlighted her specific roles, for example, that of an astral goddess personifying the planet Venus—or that of a war deity. In some cases, her individual epithets eventually developed into separate deities.

Overview

In ancient Mesopotamia, epithets could either be used alongside the primary name of a given deity, or instead of it. The latter practice was widespread in religious texts, while standard combinations of a name with an epithet, comparable to these widespread in ancient Greek religion, were relatively uncommon. The primary purpose of such titles was "outlining the essential qualities, activities, functions, genealogy, and hierarchical position of a given deity." The most archaic cuneiform texts from the Uruk period indicate that Inanna was already worshiped under a number of titles in Uruk at the time. According to Frans Wiggermann, she was the Mesopotamian deity with the highest number of such secondary names, with only Nergal having a comparable number of them. Over seventy names of Inanna are listed in the god list An = Anum alone. In various compositions, seven individual names of this goddess could be given at a time. A possible example can be found in the Archive of Mystic Heptads. In one case, a hymn enumerating epithets of Inanna simply refers to them as "names".
Many of Inanna's epithets start with the words nin or bēlet, both of which can be translated as "lady." Nin is a common element of Sumerian theonyms, which typically combine it with a toponym or another noun. Bēlet analogously occurs in Akkadian ones, not necessarily only in epithets of Inanna, as evidenced by the existence of independent goddesses such as Bēlet-Nagar and Bēlet-Apim. A third common type of similar epithets, starting with Šarrat, is first attested in the Old Babylonian period in the northern part of Babylonia. However, titles designating manifestations of various deities associated with specific places are already attested in the Early Dynastic period. The Canonical Temple List, which dates to the second half of the Kassite period, mentions at least seventy nine temples in various parts of Mesopotamia dedicated to Inanna or her various manifestations. Cities associated with her include many of the earliest political powers of Mesopotamia, such as Uruk, Kish, Umma or Zabalam. In the middle of the third millennium BCE, she was also fused with the Akkadian goddess Ishtar, the goddess of the city of Akkad, possibly with the support of the Sargonic dynasty which ruled Mesopotamia at the time. Groupings of manifestations of Inanna from various geographic locations occur in god lists, such as the Weidner god list and the Nippur god list. In the former case, the exact selection and order of the manifestation varies between copies, though Inanna of Uruk always occurs first. She also opens an analogous section in An = Anum.
Inanna could also be worshiped in astral and martial forms. The former aspect of her character most likely goes back to her prehistory, as she was already understood as a personification of Venus as both morning and evening star based on her titles present in texts from the Uruk period. In An = Anum the astral epithets have their own sub-section, and are separated from other names of Inanna by a list of her servants. It has been suggested that the role of a warrior was originally exclusive to Ishtar and did not belong to the domain of Inanna, but according to Joan Goodnick Westenholz both of them were already complex deities with many roles before the syncretic merge.
In some cases, epithets of Mesopotamian deities could develop into fully distinct figures. Westenholz noted while this phenomenon, which she refers to as "fission of deities", is attested for various members of the Mesopotamian pantheon, it is the most common for epithets of Inanna. Due to the number of her titles, as well as their frequent association with specific places, it has been speculated that there might have been more than one deity named Inanna. Tonia Sharlach argues that the names Inanna and Ishtar were effectively umbrella terms, and many of the local forms had distinct characters. Westenholz pointed out that a plurality of Inannas was worshiped in the second half of the second millennium BCE. Interpretations of individual forms of Inanna as aspects of one deity or as multiple ones could coexist.

Geographical epithets

Epithet	Location	Notes
Akuṣitum	Akus	Akuṣitum was the epithet of Inanna as the goddess of Akus, attested in royal inscriptions of the Manāna dynasty near Kish, in a later religious text pertaining to the deities of that city, in the god list An = Anum, and in the name of one of the gates of Babylon.
Ašibti UNUG^ki	Uruk	Ašibti UNUG^ki, "Goddess-who-dwells-in-Uruk", is attested as an epithet of Inanna mostly in texts from the first millennium BCE, though it could also be applied to one of her courtiers, Uṣur-amāssu.
Aššurītu	Assyria	Aššurītu, "the Assyrian", is attested as an epithet of an Assyrian form of Ishtar, though it is also possible this title was applied to Ashur's wife Mullissu and to the goddess Šerua.
Ayyabītu	Sealand	Ayyabītu, "the Sealander", is listed among manifestations of Ishtar associated with specific locations in two of the known copies of An = Anum as the explanation of ^dINANNA-A.AB.BA^ki, "Ishtar of the Sealand". A possible reference to her also occurs in the omen series Šumma ālu. According to Odette Boivin, she represents the royal cult of Ishtar in the court of the First Sealand Dynasty.
Batirītum	Batir	Batirītum, "she of the city of Batir", was worshiped in the eponymous settlement, which corresponds to modern Tell Suleimah, as evidenced by a reference to a guda priest of this goddess in one of the inscriptions from this site. According to Manfred Krebernik, she is attested as the name of a manifestation of Inanna alongside Šarratum in a text from Tell Haddad. A text from the Ur III period indicates she was also worshiped in Zimudar, another city located in the Diyala area.
Bēlet-Akkade	Akkad	Bēlet-Akkade, "Lady of Akkad", sometimes written ^dNIN-URI, is well attested as an epithet of Ishtar of Akkad. Under this name, she was worshiped in Babylon, as still attested in inscriptions of Nabonidus. Her temple in this city was known under the ceremonial name Emašdari, "house of animal offerings". Bēlet-Akkade is also attested as the theophoric element in personal names, for example in Old Babylonian Mari and in Kassite Nippur. Samsi-Addu in a letter to Yasmaḫ-Addu in which he complains about the latter commissioning more statues of various deities than he can afford singles out a statue of Bēlet-Akkade among them.
Bēlet-Bābili	Babylon	The title Bēlet-Bābili, "Lady of Babylon", referred to a local manifestation of Ishtar from this city. Her temple bore the ceremonial name Eturkalamma and is mentioned in the inscriptions of many rulers, from Hammurabi to Nabonidus, and even later in texts from the Parthian period. It is possible that Bablīta, a figure attested in late antiquity in Mandaic texts, was a derivative of Bēlet-Bābili.
Bēlet-Ninua	Nineveh	The epithet Bēlet-Ninua referred to Ishtar of Nineveh. She was also worshiped in Assur and in Babylon, in both cases in temples bearing the ceremonial name Egišḫurankia, "house of ordinances of heaven and the underworld".
Bēlet-Uruk	Uruk	The epithet Bēlet-Uruk, which can be translated as "Lady of Uruk", was usually written in cuneiform as ^dGAŠAN šá UNUG^ki; the correct reading is confirmed by phonetic syllabic spellings from inscriptions of Nebuchadnezzar II and Esarhaddon. According to Paul-Alain Beaulieu an analogous epithet with the element šarrat referred to Nanaya, rather than Inanna. Similarity to the theonym Ninunug is most likely accidental due to temporal differences, as the former is attested as a distinct deity in the Early Dynastic period.
Dīrītum	Dīr	Dīrītum is attested as a presumed epithet of Ishtar in texts from Old Babylonian Mari, though it has been proposed that with time she underwent a similar process to Annunitum and became a distinct deity. The identification of this theonym as a title of Ishtar is only attested in a single text, an Old Babylonian god list, and in the past the identity of the goddess was a subject of debate among researchers. While in early scholarship it was assumed she was associated with the eastern city of Der, it now agreed she was named after a settlement located close to Mari, which served as one of the religious centers of the kingdom centered on that city. She is well attested in texts from the reign of Zimri-Lim.
Ḫišamītum	Ḫišamta	Ḫišamītum, "Lady of Ḫišamta", was one of the epithets of Ishtar used in Old Babylonian Mari. Her cult center was located close to Terqa. She is also attested in an Old Babylonian bird omen compendium alongside Išḫara.
Iblaītu	Ebla	It has been suggested that Iblaītu, known from the Assyrian tākultu rituals, is a title of Ishtar, though according to Alfonso Archi Išḫara might be meant instead due to her traditional association with the city of Ebla. He assumes she reached Assyria in the Middle Assyrian period through Hurrian mediation.
Kišītum	Kish	Kišītum, "the goddess of Kish", is attested as the name of Inanna of Kish in god lists, in an Old Babylonian offering list from Mari, and in a theophoric name from the same city. The local form of the goddess was considered distinct from Inanna of Uruk, and they were worshiped separately from each other in Kish.
Kitītum	Kiti	Kiti was a small settlement located near Eshnunna; a temple dedicated to a local form of Inanna, Kitītum, was built there in the second half of the Larsa period. If the proposed identification of BU+BU.KALAM^ki from the Zame Hymns with Kiti is accepted, she seemingly replaced the god Amgalnuna as its tutelary deity. He was a figure of minor importance and is not attested in any sources postdating the Early Dynastic period.
Lagabītum Lakuppītu?	Lagaba	Lagabītum is attested as the alternate name of Ishtar of Lagaba, and might correspond to Lakuppītu, a deity worshiped in Isin presumably associated with the underworld.
Narāmti A.AB.BA	Sealand	The epithet narāmti A.AB.BA, possibly "beloved of the Sealand", is applied to Ishtar in the royal epic of king Gulkišar, in which she aids this ruler in battle.
Nin-Aratta	Aratta	Nin-Aratta, "Lady of Aratta", is identified as Inanna in An = Anum and implicitly in its Old Babylonian forerunner.
Nin-Eanna Bēlet-Eanna	Uruk	The epithet Nin-Eanna, "Lady of Eanna", is derived from the name of Inanna's temple in Uruk. It first appears in the third millennium BCE, with one example found in an inscription of Ur-Nammu. In later periods, it can be found in inscriptions of Karaindash, Kurigalzu I and Marduk-apla-iddina II from Uruk, as well as in multiple god lists. Despite its common usage, it never fully replaced epithets formed with the name of the city of Uruk rather than the temple located in it. Temples dedicated to Inanna as Nin-Eanna existed in Udannu, Babylon and, according to a single text from the Ur III period, in the settlement A-dag-ga^ki. In Kish, she was worshiped in Esulimanna under the name Bēlet-Eanna. According to Andrew R. George, in Babylon two separate temples dedicated to this aspect of the goddess existed, Ekitušĝarza which was located close to the city wall, and Ekitušgirzal located in the eastern part of the city. The manifestation of the goddess associated with Udannu appears under the name Bēlet-Eanna in a Seleucid text from Uruk dealing with the celebration of the akitu festival of Ishtar as a member of her entourage. In some examples of god lists from peripheral locations Nin-Eanna was interpreted as a fully separate goddess. In texts from Hattusa this name refers to Ishtar of Samuha, according to Gary Beckman most likely to be identified as the deity DINGIR.GE₆.
Nin-Ešara	Uruk or Nippur	The epithet Nin-Ešara, "Lady of Ešara", is derived from the name of a temple, but it is uncertain whether the Ešara in Uruk or Nippur is meant. In both cases the name has the same meaning, "house of the universe", but these two temples were not dedicated to the same deity: the older one, located in Nippur, was a part of the Ekur complex and belonged to Enlil, while the newer one in Uruk - to Anu.
Nin-Girgilu	Girgilu	The theonym Nin-Girgilu referred to Inanna as the goddess of Girgilu, either a part of Nippur or a separate nearby settlement. Under this name, she was worshiped in Nippur in the Ur III and early Old Babylonian periods, though a Nin-Girgilu temple also existed in Ur.
Nin-Ḫursaĝkalamma	Kish	The epithet Nin-Ḫursaĝkalamma, "Lady of Ḫursaĝkalamma", was derived from the name of a temple of Inanna located in Kish. In Neo-Babylonian sources this house of worship was instead associated with Ninlil, which might indicate either that the local goddess was understood at this point as an ištaru rather than specifically as Ishtar and therefore could be assigned another name, or that the cult of Ninlil was imposed for political reasons.
Ninibgal	Umma	The epithet Ninibgal, "Lady of Ibgal", is derived from the name of Inanna's temple in Umma, Eibgal. A form without the sign nin is also attested. Ninibgal frequently occurs in texts from the Ur III period. According to Andrew R. George, she might have been worshiped in Isin during the reign of Enlil-bani.
Ninkununa	Ur	Ninkununa is attested as an epithet of Inanna in building inscriptions of Ur-Nammu and Ur-Bau, and according to Manfred Krebernik and Antoine Cavigneaux might have been understood as the designation of a form of this goddess associated with the city of Ur. However, a distinct deity named Ninkununa appears in the god list An = Anum as a minor servant of Inanna's father Nanna.
Nin-me-Kiš	Kish	Nin-me-Kiš, "Lady of the me of Kish" or "Lady representing the me of Kish", is attested as an epithet of Inanna of Kish in An = Anum.
Nin-me-Nibru	Nippur	Nin-me-Nibru, "Lady of the me of Nippur" or "Lady representing the me of Nippur," is attested as an epithet of Inanna in the god list An = Anum with the explanatory gloss šar-rat Ni-pu-ru, "queen of Nippur".
Nin-Ninua	Nineveh	Nin-Ninua was a title of Ishtar referring to the form of this goddess worshiped in Nineveh. According to Joan Goodnick Westenholz, while attested in sources such as a treaty between Assur and Apum found in Tell Leilan, it might have been originally related to Hurrian epithets of Šauška. The latter deity could be called Ninuwawi or Ninuwaḫi. A late instance of the name Šauška being used to refer to the goddess of Nineveh occurs in a text from the reign of Sargon II, in which the king addresses her by this name and seemingly calls her the "dweller in Nineveh".
Nin-Tilmun	Dilmun	Nin-Tilmun, "Lady of Dilmun", occurs among the names of Inanna in the god list An = Anum, though according to Antoine Cavigneaux and Manfred Krebernik this name might also refer to Ninsikila, the main goddess in the Dilmunite pantheon.
Ninua’itu	Nineveh	Ninua’itu is attested as a title of Ishtar of Nineveh in inscriptions of Shalmaneser I and Tukulti-Ninurta I.
Nin-Zabalam	Zabalam	Nin-Zabalam, "Lady of Zabalam", is well attested as an epithet of Inanna of Zabalam in texts from the Ur III period, chiefly from Umma.
Sugallītum	Zabalam	Sugallītum is attested as an alternate name of Inanna of Zabalam, derived from the Akkadian form of this toponym, though it has been suggested that the spelling was also influenced by Esugal, the name of the ziggurat of Ishtar of Akkad. Various variants of the name, including logographic ^dSU.GAL, are attested in theophoric names and greeting formulas of letters, chiefly from Larsa and Sippar. It is also possible that ^dZA-BA-AD, a theonym known only from an exercise tablet from Susa, is a further analogous logogram.
Supālītum	Zabalam	Supālītum was a byname of Inanna of Zabalam which developed from the Akkadian form of the toponym, with additional influence of a folk etymology connecting it to the term supālu, "juniper". In addition to Zabalam, she is also attested in A-ka-sal₄^ki and Nippur, while the Canonical Temple List mentions four houses of worship dedicated to her, though the location of only one of them, Muru, is preserved.
Šarrat-Arbaʾil	Arbela	The title Šarrat-Arbaʾil, "Queen of Arbela", referred to the Assyrian Ishtar of Arbela, often paired with Ishtar of Nineveh. It has been argued that in late periods, she was the Assyrian form of Ishtar most commonly associated with martial roles.
Šarrat-Kidmuri	Kalhu	Šarrat-Kidmuri, "Queen of Kidmuri", was a title of Ishtar derived from the name of her temple in Kalhu, sometimes listed alongside Ishtars of Nineveh and Arbela in Neo-Assyrian letters.
Šarrat-Kiš	Kish	Šarrat-Kiš, "Queen of Kish", is attested as a title of Inanna of Kish, and An = Anum explains it as the Akkadian equivalent of Nin-me-Kiš. However, it could also be used as an epithet of Bau.
Šarrat-Ninua	Nineveh	Šarrat-Ninua, "Queen of Nineveh", was a title of Ishtar of Nineveh.
Šarrat-Sipparim	Sippar	Šarrat-Sipparim, "Queen of Sippar," could be an epithet of both Ishtar and of Annunitum, in this city treated as a distinct deity.
Šatru	Milqia	Šatru is attested as an alternate name of the manifestation of Ishtar worshiped in Arbela, associated with her temporary move to Milqia during certain ceremonies.
Šulmānītu	Uru-sa/ilim-ma	Šulmānītu occurs as one of the epithets of Inanna in the god list An = Anum, which explains her as the Ishtar of otherwise unknown place named Uru-sa/ilim-ma, in the past erroneously interpreted as Jerusalem. She was worshiped in Assur in the temple Eku, "shining house".
Ṣā’idītu	Dunnu-ṣā’idi	Ṣā’idītu is the presumed reading of ZA-i-di-tu, an epithet of Inanna attested in the god list An = Anum likely derived from the toponym Dunnu-ṣā’idi.
Ṣarbat	Ṣarbat	The theonym Ishtar-ṣarbat referred to a form of this goddess presumably native to the Middle Euphrates area, most likely linked to the toponym Ṣarbatum, derived from the Akkadian name of the Euphrates poplar. According to Manfred Krebernik, Ṣarbatum might have been a grove rather than a city. Ishtar-ṣarbat is attested in texts from Ebla, Mari and Emar.
Tallā'ītu	Unknown, possibly Talsa	Tallā'ītu, an Akkadian epithet of unknown meaning, occurs in the god list An = Anum as an explanation of ^dINANNA-^ĝišTAL.SA. Ryan D. Winters tentatively suggests it might be derived from an otherwise unknown toponym, Talsa.
Ulmašītum	Akkad	The epithet Ulmašītum was derived from Eulmaš, a temple of Ishtar in the city of Akkad. In sources from the Ur III period she never appears alone, always alongside Annunitum. Both of them were worshiped in Uruk alongside Inanna. She was regarded as a warlike deity.
Ungal-Nibru Šarrat-Nippuri	Nippur	The Sumerian epithet Ungal-Nibru, "Queen of Nippur", corresponded to Akkadian Šarrat-Nippuri, and should not be confused with Nin-Nibru, a name which did not function as Inanna's epithet.
Urkayītu Urkītum	Uruk	While Urkayītu, "the Urukean", is well attested as a separate deity in documents from Uruk from the Neo-Babylonian period, it is presumed that this name was initially an epithet. The older form, Urkītum, is already attested in Old Babylonian theophoric names.