Endochondral ossification
Endochondral ossification is one of the two essential pathways by which bone tissue is produced during fetal development and bone repair of the mammalian skeletal system, the other pathway being intramembranous ossification. Both endochondral and intramembranous processes initiate from a precursor mesenchymal tissue, but their transformations into bone are different. In intramembranous ossification, mesenchymal tissue is directly converted into bone. On the other hand, endochondral ossification starts with mesenchymal tissue turning into an intermediate cartilage stage, which is eventually substituted by bone.
Endochondral ossification is responsible for development of most bones including long and short bones, the bones of the axial and the appendicular skeleton, the bones of the skull base and the medial end of the clavicle. In addition, endochondral ossification is not exclusively confined to embryonic development; it also plays a crucial role in the [|healing of fractures].
Formation of the cartilage model
The initiation of endochondral ossification starts by proliferation and condensation of mesenchymal cells in the area where the bone will eventually be formed. Subsequently, these mesenchymal progenitor cells differentiate into chondroblasts, which actively synthesize cartilage matrix components. Thus, the initial hyaline cartilage template is formed, which has the same basic shape and outline as the future bone.| Interstitial growth | Appositional growth | |
| Cellular protagonists | Chondrocytes present within the existing cartilage. | Chondroblasts that develop from the perichondrium. |
| Mechanism | Chondrocytes proliferate and lay down matrix. | Chondroblasts differentiate into chondrocytes and lay down matrix. |
| Site of expansion | From within. | From the external surface of existing cartilage. |
| Outcome | Increase in length. | Increase in width and thickness. |
Primary center of ossification
In developing bones, ossification commences within the primary ossification center located in the center of the diaphysis, where the following changes occur:- The perichondrium surrounding the cartilage model transforms into the periosteum. During this transformation, special cells within the perichondrium switch gears. Instead of becoming cartilage cells, they mature into bone-building osteoblasts. This newly formed bone can be called "periosteal bone" as it originates from the transformed periosteum. However, considering its developmental pathway, it could be classified as "intramembranous bone".
- After the formation of the periosteum, chondrocytes in the primary center of ossification begin to grow. They begin secreting:
- When chondrocytes die, matrix metalloproteinases result in catabolism of various components within the extracellular matrix and the physical boundaries between neighboring lacunae weaken. This can lead to the merging of these lacunae, creating larger empty spaces.
- Blood vessels arising from the periosteum invade these empty spaces and mesenchymal stem cells migrate guided by penetrating blood vessels. Following the invading blood vessels, mesenchymal stem cells reach these empty spaces and undergo differentiation into osteoprogenitor cells. These progenitors further mature into osteoblasts, that deposit unmineralized bone matrix, termed osteoid. Mineralization subsequently follows leading to formation of bone trabeculae.
Secondary center of ossification
During the postnatal life, a secondary ossification center appears in each end of long bones. In these secondary centers, cartilage is converted to bone similarly to that occurring in a primary ossification center. As the secondary ossification centers enlarge, residual cartilage persists in two distinct locations:At the end of an individual's growth period, the production of new cartilage in the epiphyseal plate stops. After this point, existing cartilage within the plate turns into mature bone tissue.
Histology
During endochondral ossification, five distinct zones can be seen at the light-microscope level:| Name | Definition |
| Zone of resting cartilage | This zone contains normal, resting hyaline cartilage. |
| Zone of proliferation / cell columns | In this zone, chondrocytes undergo rapid mitosis, forming distinctive looking columns. |
| Zone of maturation / hypertrophy | In this zone, the chondrocytes undergo hypertrophy. Chondrocytes contain large amounts of glycogen and begin to secrete vascular endothelial growth factor to initiate vascular invasion. |
| Zone of calcification | In this zone, chondrocytes are either dying or dead, leaving cavities that will later become invaded by bone-forming cells. Chondrocytes here die when they can no longer receive nutrients or eliminate wastes via diffusion. This is because the calcified matrix is much less hydrated than hyaline cartilage. |
| Zone of ossification | Osteoprogenitor cells invade the area and differentiate into osteoblasts, which elaborate matrix that becomes calcified on the surface of calcified cartilage. |