Effects of pornography
can be defined as any material, in any format, including texts, videos, photos, or audio, that is consumed for sexual satisfaction and arousal of an individual or partnership. The effects of pornography on individuals or their intimate relationships have been a subject of research. Scholars note that much of the research on the effects of pornography often confuses correlation with causation.
Key theories
Sexuality theories
Sexual strategies theory
can be strongly linked to pornography consumption and its effects. This theory is originally proposed by psychologists David Michael Buss and David P. Schmitt in 1993. The theory details how men and women are biologically wired differently when it comes to seeking avenues of sexual and romantic endeavors. It argues that these biological evolutions and differences still exist today when choosing sexual material or even a romantic partner. Some other researchers also backed up Buss and Schmitt's theory, emphasizing how men are more attracted to the physicality of a person, while women are attracted to more of the status of a person.In the context of pornography consumption, the sexual strategies theory comes in to play especially for men. Males would consume more pornography to have a visual physicality of certain pornographic actors, which would play into even more frequent consumption of the material.
Sexual scripting
Pornography research is greatly influenced by Script Theory. Originally proposed by researcher Silvan Tomkins, Script Theory proposes that behavior is a series of "scripts", or programs in order to achieve a goal. These scripts provide meaning for specific patterns, actions or behaviors that an individual does in certain contexts of achieving that goal. In 1986, Simon and Gagnon applied script theory to sexuality research, asserting that sexual scripts fall under a category of cultural scripts to regulate sexual behaviors.Psychological
Pornography addiction
is a purported behavioral addiction characterized by compulsive, repeated use of pornographic material which causes serious consequences to one's physical, mental, social, and/or financial well-being. There is no diagnosis of pornography addiction in the current Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, though the DSM-5 considered the diagnosis of hypersexuality-related behavioral disorders, but rejected it because "there is insufficient peer-reviewed evidence to establish the diagnostic criteria and course descriptions needed to identify these behaviors as mental disorders." Instead, some psychologists suggest that any maladaptive sexual symptoms represent a manifestation of an underlying disorder, such as depression or anxiety which is simply manifesting itself sexually, or, alternatively, there is no underlying disorder and the behavior simply is not maladaptive. It is argued that psychologists do not recognize the concept of addiction, only chemical dependence, and some believe the concept and diagnosis to be stigmatizing and unhelpful.A 2016 systemic review found that studies have linked self-perceived pornography addiction to increased isolation and relationship breakdowns for both users and their partners. The review noted that some methodological limitations in the primary studies, such as a lack of representative samples and inadequate measurement tools, could weaken the overall conclusions. The researchers concluded the review with a recommendation for further research.
A 2022 book by McKee, Litsou, Byron, and Ingham cast doubt on the model of "porn addiction", suggesting that sexual shame should be blamed, instead of pornography.
Fotinos et al. suggest there is a problem with excessive pornography consumption, but state that moderate pornography consumption can be healthy.
Neuropsychopharmacological and psychological researches on pornography addiction conducted between 2015 and 2021 have concluded that most studies have been focused entirely or almost exclusively on men in anonymous settings, and the findings are contradicting.
The International Classification of Diseases, 11th edition added pornography to Compulsive Sexual Behavior Disorder. CSBD is not an addiction and should not be conflated with sex addiction.
DSM-5-TR, published in March 2022, does not recognize a diagnosis of porn addiction.
Studies and evidence of effects
Two 2016 neurology reviews found evidence of addiction related brain changes in internet pornography users. Psychological effects of these brain changes are described as desensitization to reward, a dysfunctional anxiety response, and impulsiveness. Another 2016 review suggests that internet behaviors, including the use of pornography, be considered potentially addictive, and that problematic use of online pornography be considered an "internet-use disorder".Introductory psychology textbook authors Coon, Mitterer and Martini, passingly mentioning NoFap speak of pornography as a "supernormal stimulus" but use the model of compulsion rather than addiction.
A number of studies have found neurological markers of addiction in Internet pornography users, which is consistent with a large body of research finding similar markers in other kinds of problematic users. Yet other studies have found that critical biomarkers of addiction are missing.
According to the American Society of Addiction Medicine, some psychological and behavioral changes in response to developing addiction include addictive cravings, impulsiveness, weakened executive function, desensitization, and dysphoria. BOLD fMRI results have shown that individuals diagnosed with compulsive sexual behavior show enhanced cue reactivity in brain regions associated traditionally with drug-cue reactivity.
These regions include the amygdala and the ventral striatum. Men without CSB who had a long history of viewing pornography exhibited a less intense response to pornographic images in the left ventral putamen, possibly suggestive of desensitization. ASAMs position is inconsistent, however, with the American Association of Sex Educators, Counselors, and Therapists, who cite lack of strong evidence for such classification, describing ASAM as not informed by "accurate human sexuality knowledge".
A more extreme case of pornography use could even result in impaired decision making. In some other cases, extreme levels of consumption could result in sexual bias, in which an individual would respond more greatly if there is an active presence of sexual stimuli.
A 2023 narrative review found that increasing internet pornography consumption, particularly among men, is closely linked to compulsive sexual behavior and may function as a coping mechanism for stress, anxiety, and depression. While some users report temporary mood regulation benefits, many also experience guilt and internal conflict related to their behavior. The authors state:
A 2025 systematic review of longitudinal studies on adolescent pornography use found heterogeneous results, with some studies indicating significant associations between pornography use and various outcomes, while other results were inconsistent. The review concluded that further research is needed to clarify relationships between types and patterns of pornography use in adolescents.
A 2025 public policy research, including about teenagers using pornographic media, says "The evidence to substantiate these assertions remains preliminary". That is, the existing evidence does not support public policy stances about how teenagers use media. However, the review did not concentrate upon pornography use, and just mentioned it passingly.
Mental blocks in individual "physicality"
Although there are no significant outward effects on the physicality of an individual, pornographic consumption can still have an effect on how individuals view their bodies and how they would change certain aspects of their physicality to better mirror those in the pornographic material. This in turn will lead to issues of self-esteem, body dysmorphia and overall body image issues.Men and masculine "attractiveness"
Sexual performance changes a man's view of his masculinity, and often his self-esteem. Pornography is not the only factor affecting men's self-esteem and body image. Popular media often depicts strong but lean men as the ideal attractive body type and goal. Men would also make comparisons with the pornographic models due to a level of dissatisfaction. These can include face shape, hair and muscle mass. All of these elements could significantly contribute to men's self esteem levels. As of 2021, few studies have evaluated how exposure to pornography relates to men's body image. Researchers recommend that others conduct more studies on pornography's effect on men's psychology.Public health
Pathologizing any form of sexual behavior, including pornography use, has the potential to restrict sexual freedom, influence restrictive legislation, compromise freedom of expression, and stigmatize individuals who engage in the behavior. Researcher Emily F. Rothman, author of Pornography and Public Health stated that the professional communities are not advocating for the "push" in labelling pornography as a "public health crisis". Rothman and Nelson have described this as a "political stunt". The ideas supporting the "crisis" have been described as pseudoscientific.Sexual effects
The sexual effects of pornography on intimacy and relationships observe some of the most gendered differences. Men and women differ in how they are impacted by pornography on the psychological and behavioral levels, both within and beyond a romantic or sexual relationship.It can negatively impact sexual functioning, especially in men. However, pornography can function as an educational resource for individuals to improve their sexual knowledge, and women who consume pornography more regularly experience increased desire for sexual activity, indicating that pornography might be useful as a form of foreplay.