Digital signal processor


A digital signal processor is a specialized microprocessor chip, with its architecture optimized for the operational needs of digital signal processing. DSPs are fabricated on metal–oxide–semiconductor integrated circuit chips. They are widely used in audio signal processing, telecommunications, digital image processing, radar, sonar and speech recognition systems, and in common consumer electronic devices such as mobile phones, disk drives and high-definition television products.
The goal of a DSP is usually to measure, filter or compress continuous real-world analog signals. Most general-purpose microprocessors can also execute digital signal processing algorithms successfully, but may not be able to keep up with such processing continuously in real-time. Also, dedicated DSPs usually have better power efficiency, thus they are more suitable in portable devices such as mobile phones because of power consumption constraints. DSPs often use special memory architectures that are able to fetch multiple data or instructions at the same time.

Overview

Digital signal processing algorithms typically require a large number of mathematical operations to be performed quickly and repeatedly on a series of data samples. Signals are constantly converted from analog to digital, manipulated digitally, and then converted back to analog form. Many DSP applications have constraints on latency; that is, for the system to work, the DSP operation must be completed within some fixed time, and deferred processing is not viable.
Most general-purpose microprocessors and operating systems can execute DSP algorithms successfully, but are not suitable for use in portable devices such as mobile phones and PDAs because of power efficiency constraints. A specialized DSP, however, will tend to provide a lower-cost solution, with better performance, lower latency, and no requirements for specialised cooling or large batteries.
Such performance improvements have led to the introduction of digital signal processing in commercial communications satellites where hundreds or even thousands of analog filters, switches, frequency converters and so on are required to receive and process the uplinked signals and ready them for downlinking, and can be replaced with specialised DSPs with significant benefits to the satellites' weight, power consumption, complexity/cost of construction, reliability and flexibility of operation. For example, the SES-12 and SES-14 satellites from operator SES launched in 2018, were both built by Airbus Defence and Space with 25% of capacity using DSP.
The architecture of a DSP is optimized specifically for digital signal processing. Most also support some of the features of an applications processor or microcontroller, since signal processing is rarely the only task of a system. Some useful features for optimizing DSP algorithms are outlined below.

Architecture

Software architecture

By the standards of general-purpose processors, DSP instruction sets are often highly irregular; while traditional instruction sets are made up of more general instructions that allow them to perform a wider variety of operations, instruction sets optimized for digital signal processing contain instructions for common mathematical operations that occur frequently in DSP calculations. Both traditional and DSP-optimized instruction sets are able to compute any arbitrary operation but an operation that might require multiple ARM or x86 instructions to compute might require only one instruction in a DSP-optimized instruction set.
One implication for software architecture is that hand-optimized assembly-code routines are commonly packaged into libraries for re-use, instead of relying on advanced compiler technologies to handle essential algorithms. Even with modern compiler optimizations, hand-optimized assembly code is more efficient, and many common algorithms involved in DSP calculations are hand-written in order to take full advantage of the architectural optimizations.

Instruction sets

  • multiply–accumulates operations
  • *used extensively in all kinds of matrix operations
  • **convolution for filtering
  • **dot product
  • **polynomial evaluation
  • *Fundamental DSP algorithms depend heavily on multiply–accumulate performance
  • **FIR filters
  • **Fast Fourier transform
  • related instructions:
  • *SIMD
  • *VLIW
  • Specialized instructions for modulo addressing in ring buffers and bit-reversed addressing mode for FFT cross-referencing
  • DSPs sometimes use time-stationary encoding to simplify hardware and increase coding efficiency.
  • Multiple arithmetic units may require memory architectures to support several accesses per instruction cycle – typically supporting reading 2 data values from 2 separate data buses and the next instruction simultaneously.
  • Special loop controls, such as architectural support for executing a few instruction words in a very tight loop without overhead for instruction fetches or exit testing—such as zero-overhead looping and hardware loop buffers.

    Data instructions

  • Saturation arithmetic, in which operations that produce overflows will accumulate at the maximum values that the register can hold, rather than wrapping around. Sometimes various sticky bits operation modes are available.
  • Fixed-point arithmetic is often used to speed up arithmetic processing.
  • Single-cycle operations to increase the benefits of pipelining.

    Program flow

  • Floating-point unit integrated directly into the datapath
  • Pipelined architecture
  • Highly parallel multiplier–accumulators
  • Hardware-controlled looping, to reduce or eliminate the overhead required for looping operations

    Hardware architecture

Memory architecture

DSPs are usually optimized for streaming data and use special memory architectures that are able to fetch multiple data or instructions at the same time, such as the Harvard architecture or Modified von Neumann architecture, which use separate program and data memories.
DSPs can sometimes rely on supporting code to know about cache hierarchies and the associated delays. This is a tradeoff that allows for better performance. In addition, extensive use of DMA is employed.
Addressing and virtual memory
DSPs frequently use multi-tasking operating systems, but have no support for virtual memory or memory protection. Operating systems that use virtual memory require more time for context switching among processes, which increases latency.
  • Hardware modulo addressing
  • *Allows circular buffers to be implemented without having to test for wrapping
  • Bit-reversed addressing, a special addressing mode
  • *useful for calculating FFTs
  • Exclusion of a memory management unit
  • Address generation unit

    History

Development

In 1976, Richard Wiggins proposed the Speak & Spell concept to Paul Breedlove, Larry Brantingham, and Gene Frantz at Texas Instruments' Dallas research facility. Two years later in 1978, they produced the first Speak & Spell, with the technological centerpiece being the TMS5100, the industry's first digital signal processor. It also set other milestones, being the first chip to use linear predictive coding to perform speech synthesis. The chip was made possible with a 7 μm PMOS fabrication process.
In 1978, American Microsystems released the S2811. The AMI S2811 "signal processing peripheral", like many later DSPs, has a hardware multiplier that enables it to do multiply–accumulate operation in a single instruction. The S2281 was the first integrated circuit chip specifically designed as a DSP, and fabricated using vertical metal oxide semiconductor, a technology that had previously not been mass-produced. It was designed as a microprocessor peripheral, for the Motorola 6800, and it had to be initialized by the host. The S2811 was not successful in the market.
In 1979, Intel released the 2920 as an "analog signal processor". It had an on-chip ADC/DAC with an internal signal processor, but it didn't have a hardware multiplier and was not successful in the market.
In 1980, the first stand-alone, complete DSPs – Nippon Electric Corporation's NEC μPD7720 based on the modified Harvard architecture and AT&T's DSP1 – were presented at the International Solid-State Circuits Conference '80. Both processors were inspired by the research in public switched telephone network telecommunications. The μPD7720, introduced for voiceband applications, was one of the most commercially successful early DSPs.
The Altamira DX-1 was another early DSP, utilizing quad integer pipelines with delayed branches and branch prediction.
Another DSP produced by Texas Instruments, the TMS32010, presented in 1983, proved to be an even bigger success. It was based on the Harvard architecture, and so had separate instruction and data memory. It already had a special instruction set, with instructions like load-and-accumulate or multiply-and-accumulate. It could work on 16-bit numbers and needed 390 ns for a multiply–add operation. TI is now the market leader in general-purpose DSPs.
About five years later, the second generation of DSPs began to spread. They had 3 memories for storing two operands simultaneously and included hardware to accelerate tight loops; they also had an addressing unit capable of loop-addressing. Some of them operated on 24-bit variables, and a typical model only required about 21 ns for a MAC. Members of this generation were, for example, the AT&T DSP16A or the Motorola 56000.
The main improvement in the third generation was the appearance of application-specific units and instructions in the data path, or sometimes as coprocessors. These units allowed direct hardware acceleration of very specific but complex mathematical problems, like the Fourier transform or matrix operations. Some chips, like the Motorola MC68356, even included more than one processor core to work in parallel. Other DSPs from 1995 are the TI TMS320C541 or the TMS320C80.
The fourth generation is best characterized by the changes in the instruction set and the instruction encoding/decoding. SIMD extensions were added, and VLIW and the superscalar architecture appeared. As always, the clock speeds have increased; a 3 ns MAC now became possible.