Developmental coordination disorder


Developmental coordination disorder, also known as developmental motor coordination disorder, developmental dyspraxia, or simply dyspraxia, is a motor disorder characterized by impaired coordination of physical movements as a result of brain messages not being accurately transmitted to the body. Deficits in fine or gross motor skills movements interfere with activities of daily living. It is often described as disorder in skill acquisition, where the learning and execution of coordinated motor skills is substantially below that expected given the individual's chronological age. Difficulties may present as clumsiness, slowness and inaccuracy of performance of motor skills. It is often accompanied by difficulty with organisation and/or problems with attention, working memory and time management.
A diagnosis of DCD is reached only in the absence of other neurological impairments such as cerebral palsy, multiple sclerosis, or Parkinson's disease. The condition is lifelong and its onset is in early childhood. It is thought to affect about 5% of the population. Occupational therapy can help people with dyspraxia to develop their coordination and achieve things that they might otherwise find extremely challenging to accomplish. Dyspraxia has nothing to do with intelligence but people with dyspraxia may struggle with self-esteem because their peers can easily do things they struggle with on a daily basis. Dyspraxia is not often known as a disability in the general public.

Signs and symptoms

The World Health Organization recognizes DCD as a condition and have published their definition in the International Classification of Diseases. This describes DCD as:
The American Psychiatric Association 's Diagnostic and Statistical Manual, DSM-5 classifies Developmental Coordination Disorder as a discrete motor disorder under the broader heading of neurodevelopmental disorders. It is often described as a disorder in skill acquisition or motor learning, where the learning and execution of coordinated motor skills is substantially below that expected given the individual's chronological age. Various areas of development can be affected by DCD and these may persist into adulthood.
In children, DCD may exhibit as delays in early development of sitting, crawling, walking; poor ability or difficulties with childhood activities such as running, jumping, hopping, catching, sports and swimming; slowness; frequent tripping and bruising; poor handwriting skills; difficulties with self care; difficulties with skills such as using cutlery or tying shoelaces; poor spatial understanding; difficulty following instructions; poor time management; and often losing objects.
In adulthood, in addition to a childhood history as above, the condition may manifest as a difficulty learning new motor skills or applying skills in a different or busy environment, poor organisation and time management skills, missed deadlines and lateness for appointments, and awkward pauses before answering in conversation. There is often a history of underachievement in education or the workplace. Although skills can be acquired, such as neat handwriting, handwriting speed will then be much lower than expected.
Evidence from research and clinical practice indicates that DCD is not just a physical disorder, and there may be deficits in executive functions, behavioural organisation and emotional regulation that extend beyond the motor impairments and which are independent of diagnoses of co-morbidities. In addition to the physical or motor impairments, developmental coordination disorder is associated with problems with memory, especially working memory. This typically results in difficulty remembering instructions, difficulty organizing one's time and remembering deadlines, increased propensity to lose things or problems carrying out tasks which require remembering several steps in sequence. Whilst most of the general population experience these problems to some extent, they have a much more significant impact on the lives of dyspraxic people. However, many dyspraxics have excellent long-term memories, despite poor short-term memory. Many dyspraxic people benefit from working in a structured environment, as repeating the same routine minimises difficulty with time-management and allows them to commit procedures to long-term memory.
People with developmental coordination disorder sometimes have difficulty moderating the amount of sensory information that their body is constantly sending them, so as a result these dyspraxic people may be prone to sensory overload and panic attacks.
Moderate to extreme difficulty doing physical tasks is experienced by some people with dyspraxia, and fatigue is common because so much energy is expended trying to execute physical movements correctly. Some dyspraxic people have hypotonia, low muscle tone, which can also detrimentally affect balance.

Gross motor control

Whole body movement and motor coordination issues mean that major developmental targets including walking, running, climbing and jumping can be affected. The difficulties vary from person to person and can include the following:
  • Poor timing.
  • Poor balance. Tripping over one's own feet is also common.
  • Difficulty combining movements into a controlled sequence.
  • Difficulty remembering the next movement in a sequence.
  • Problems with spatial awareness, or proprioception.
  • Trouble picking up and holding onto simple objects such as pencils, owing to poor muscle tone or proprioception.
  • Clumsiness to the point of knocking things over, causing minor injuries to oneself and bumping into people accidentally.
  • Difficulty in determining left from right.
  • Cross-laterality, ambidexterity, and a shift in the preferred hand are also common in people with developmental coordination disorder.
  • Problems with chewing foods.

    Fine motor control

Fine-motor problems can cause difficulty with a wide variety of other tasks such as using a knife and fork, fastening buttons and shoelaces, cooking, brushing teeth, styling hair, shaving, applying cosmetics, opening jars and packets, locking and unlocking doors, and doing housework.
Difficulties with fine motor co-ordination lead to problems with handwriting,
Problems associated with this area may include:
  • Learning basic movement patterns.
  • Developing a desired writing speed.
  • Establishing the correct pencil grip.
  • Handwriting that is difficult to read and may miss words in sentences or place words in the incorrect order
  • The acquisition of graphemes – e.g. the letters of the Latin alphabet, as well as numbers.

    Developmental verbal dyspraxia

is a type of ideational dyspraxia, causing speech and language impairments. This is the favoured term in the UK; however, it is also sometimes referred to as articulatory dyspraxia, and in the United States the usual term is childhood apraxia of speech.
Key problems include:
  • Difficulties controlling the speech organs.
  • Difficulties making speech sounds.
  • Difficulty sequencing sounds within a word.
  • Difficulty sequencing sounds forming words into sentences.
  • Difficulty controlling breathing, suppressing salivation and phonation when talking or singing with lyrics.
  • Slow language development.

    Associated disorders and secondary consequences

DCD is known to co-occur with other neurodevelopmental disorders. Most common is attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, with an estimated 50% of people with ADHD also having DCD and vice versa. Other co-occurring conditions are autism, developmental language disorder, prosopagnosia and developmental learning disorder.
People who have developmental coordination disorder may also have one or more of these other co-morbid conditions:
However, a person with DCD is unlikely to have all of these conditions. The pattern of difficulty varies widely from person to person; an area of major weakness for one dyspraxic person can be an area of strength or gift for another. For example, while some dyspraxic people have difficulty with reading and spelling due to dyslexia, or with numeracy due to dyscalculia, others may have brilliant reading and spelling or mathematical abilities. Co-morbidity between ADHD and DCD is particularly high.

Sensory processing disorder

Sensory processing disorder concerns having oversensitivity or undersensitivity to physical stimuli, such as touch, light, sound, and smell. This may manifest itself as an inability to tolerate certain textures such as sandpaper or certain fabrics such as wool, oral intolerance of excessively textured food, being touched by another individual or it may require the consistent use of sunglasses outdoors since sunlight may be intense enough to cause discomfort to a dyspraxic person. An aversion to loud music and naturally loud environments is typical behavior of individuals with dyspraxia who have auditory oversensitivity, while only being comfortable in unusually warm or cold environments is typical of a dyspraxic person with temperature oversensitivity. Undersensitivity to stimuli may also cause problems, as individuals do not receive the sensory input they need to understand where their bodies are in space. This can make it even more challenging to complete tasks. Dyspraxic people who are undersensitive to pain may injure themselves without realising it. Some dyspraxic people may be oversensitive to some stimuli and undersensitive to others.

Developmental language disorder

Developmental language disorder research has found that students with developmental coordination disorder and normal language skills still experience learning difficulties despite relative strengths in language. This means that, for students with developmental coordination disorder, their working memory abilities determine their learning difficulties. Any strength in language that they have is not able to sufficiently support their learning.
Students with developmental coordination disorder struggle most in visual-spatial memory. When compared to their peers without motor difficulties, students with developmental coordination disorder are seven times more likely than typically developing students to achieve very poor scores in visual-spatial memory. As a result of this working memory impairment, students with developmental coordination disorder have learning deficits as well.
Physical consequences
Dyspraxic individuals face a higher prevalence of negative outcomes, including poor cardiovascular health, challenges with physical health and self-care.