Daima
Daima is a mound settlement located in Nigeria, near Lake Chad, and about 5 kilometers away from the Nigerian frontier with Cameroon. It was first excavated in 1965 by British archaeologist Graham Connah. Radiocarbon dating showed the occupations at Daima cover a period beginning early in the first millennium BC, and ending early in the second millennium AD. The Daima sequence then covers some 1800 years. Daima is a perfect example of an archaeological tell site, as Daima's stratigraphy seems to be divided into three periods or phases which mark separate occupations. These phases are called Daima I, Daima II, and Daima III. Although these occupations differ from each other in multiple ways, they also have some shared aspects with one another. Daima I represents an occupation of a people without metalwork; Daima II is characterized by the first iron-using people of the site; and Daima III represents a rich society with a much more complex material culture.
Location
Daima is located in northeastern Nigeria, 5 kilometers away from the Cameroonian frontier. It is also close to Lake Chad, as it is located about 45 kilometers away from the shoreline. The excavations discovered that around Daima, large deposits of firki clay are found. Further excavations proved that Daima's base also rests on firki clay plains. The mound's surroundings are composed of sandy areas. An aerial survey of the site suggested the sand area is larger than the firki area. The survey also suggested the sand may be of alluvial origin. The excavation also demonstrated that the firki clay in which Daima sits on, is very thin and there is some sand beneath it. This suggests the first settlement of the mound might have grown on a small sand island that extended to the edge of the firki as time passed. Little vegetation is found in the area, as this area is part of the wet season fields used by the present Daima village; also, because large numbers of cattle are watered down in the pool located at the northeast edge of the mound during dry seasons. Aside from grass, the other type of vegetation that survives and can be found in the area consists of bushes of Calotropis procera, which is particularly available at the site. Thorny forests are also available at the site. Few trees are also scattered throughout. Other trees such as Balanites aegyptiaca, Ficus gnaphalocarpa, and Acacia albida were documented as being present in the mound around 1967. Occasional patches of thorn bushes such as Ziziphus spina-christi, and Ziziphus mauritania are also found.Archaeology
Daima was first excavated by Graham Connah in 1965 and 1966. According to Connah, who was the lead archaeologist in this project, seven test shafts of 2.13 by 2.12 meters each were sunk at 30-m intervals on the highest point of the mound to its edge. These cuttings showed most of the ground properties such as levels of sand, firki clay, animal disturbances, white and black ash, and levels of burials. Archaeologists working in this project tried to find a way to remove the loosened deposits from the cutting and dump them at a sufficient distance from the cutting edge. Many of the cuttings were dug with trowels, picks and shovels. The excavated soil was carried away and deposited on soil heaps at a safe distance for further observation and analysis. All the test cuttings were excavated in the same manner. The cuttings were later backfilled to keep the site protected from erosion.Intense radiocarbon analyses discovered that Daima dates to early in the first millennium BC until early into the second millennium AD. The excavations showed the stratigraphy of the mound seems to separate Daima into three parts. Daima I represents a community of people without any metalwork who herded cattle and grew sorghum. Daima II is characterized by the first iron working people of the mound's history. Daima III represents a community of people with a rich material culture which include many different kinds of exotic goods and materials.
Daima I: 550 BC to 50 AD
Daima I is characterized by a sloping complex of hearths which consist of a mixture of red and yellow burnt sand and firki clay, and white ash. Houses at Daima I were built out of thin wood and then were covered with grass or mats. Lumps of fired clay at Daima I are surprisingly low in contrast to the other two phases of the mound. Traces of black and white ash are present, as well as animal bones, potsherds, and charcoal. Bone tools and animal clay figurines are also found at Daima I. It is believed the people of Daima I grew sorghum, as well as hunted and fished.Pottery
At Daima I, vast amounts of broken pottery or potsherds can be found. Some of the decoration patterns include comb-sampling, comb-drawing, grooving and ridging, wiping and smoothing, plaited cord roulettes, and mat impressions. The shape and form of the pottery include small bowls and pots, as well as pots with curved necks, externally thickened rims and pot-lids. Although round-based pots were widely available throughout Daima's history.Fired clay figurines
Since Daima sits on firki clay, the inhabitants of Daima used it a lot throughout the three phases. The fired clay figurines found at Daima I depicted cows and cattle in general. Most of the clay figurines were about 5 centimeters in length. Two main styles of clay figurines are found at the site. These styles are standing and sitting depictions of cattle. The exact purpose of the clay figurines is unknown, but it is generally hypothesized that societies build figurines of the animals their economy relies on as adoration or idolization. Clay bracelets and miniature pots which are believed to be children toys, were also made at Daima I.Stone tools
Just like potsherds, great amounts of stone tools are found at the site. The most prominent kind of stone tools found are ground stone axes. The overall findings of stone tools in this area is remarkable, as this part of Nigeria is fairly stone-less. Some of the found stone tools also include stone grinders, grindstones, and pounders. Some of these tools might have been used as bead polishers. In addition, a round "stone ball" is also found at this deposit. Because of a continuous wear seen in the stone tools, it is believed these were being reused as they broke down. It is thought that pieces of broken grindstones became grinders or pounders, which may have been reused once more as grooved stone.Further analysis of the stone tools suggests the material is rhyolite from Hadjer el Hamis, a rock formation located about 80 kilometers away from Daima. Although it is believed stone materials were transported by water along Lake Chad. If this was the case, then the distance would be of about 210 kilometers. Other materials used were granite, which is believed to have come from Grea, which is located around 121 kilometers away from Daima, and volcanic material from the Mandara Mountains. These vast distances hint trade with other places, but it remains uncertain.
Bone tools
Stone was not always easy to come by. Stone had to be collected, gathered, and then carried back to the site. Is believed this extensive process, caused people to turn to animal bones for tool material. Daima I is also characterized by beautiful and intricately made bone tools. Among these tools, the most notorious are the bone harpoons. The bone harpoons are boat-shaped in cross-section and are pointed at both ends. The length of these tools varies from 5.1 centimeters to 13.0 centimeters and these usually have two line-retention lugs; Some have only one, and some do not have one at all. Also, the harpoons have a few barbs on them. Those mentioned details denote these tools are in fact harpoons that were intended to detach from their shaft and remain in the wound after impact.Double-ended bone points are also highly common during this phase. In Daima's case, it is assumed the bone points were being used as projectiles such as arrows. A spatulate-like tool is also found at Daima I. This tool is made out of a splinter of metapodial bones with part of the proximal end used as the handle. The distal end of the bone was removed, and the end of the shaft was grounded to a chisel-like with a point on the edge. This artifact is thought to have been used as a skinning tool. In addition, an ulna tool is also present in the archaeological record of Daima I. This tool consists of a proximal end used as a handle, just as the spatulate tool previously mentioned. Also, the shaft was ground to a circular and pointed cross-section. Additional bone tools include a few spearheads.