Reformed Christianity
Reformed Christianity, also called Calvinism, is a major branch of Protestantism that began during the 16th-century Protestant Reformation. In the modern day, it is largely represented by the Continental Reformed, Presbyterian, and Congregational traditions, as well as parts of the Anglican, Baptist and Waldensian traditions, in addition to a minority of persons belonging to the Methodist faith.
Reformed theology emphasizes the authority of the Bible and the sovereignty of God, as well as covenant theology, a framework for understanding the Bible based on God's covenants with people. Reformed churches emphasize simplicity in worship. Several forms of ecclesiastical polity are exercised by Reformed churches, including presbyterian, congregational, and some episcopal. Articulated by theologian John Calvin, the Reformed faith holds to a spiritual presence of Christ in the Lord's Supper.
Emerging in the 16th century, the Reformed tradition developed over several generations, especially in areas Switzerland, Scotland and the Netherlands. In the 17th century, Jacobus Arminius and the Remonstrants were expelled from the Dutch Reformed Church over disputes regarding predestination and salvation, and from that time Arminians are usually considered to be a distinct tradition from the Reformed. This dispute produced the Canons of Dort, the basis for the "doctrines of grace" also known as the "five points" of Calvinism.
Calvinism influenced social, economic, and political life by promoting hard work, trade, and wealth accumulation within ethical limits, laying the groundwork for modern capitalism, especially in Northern Europe and the United States. Its emphasis on elected church elders, the priesthood of all believers, and mixed government inspired early democratic practices, separation of powers, and protections for religious minorities, shaping colonies in North America and liberal political thought in England. Calvinist-inspired reforms also advanced social causes like abolition, women’s suffrage, education, and humanitarian efforts worldwide.
Definition and terminology
The term Reformed Christianity is derived from the denomination's self designation of "Reformed Church", beginning in Switzerland and Germany, shortly thereafter followed by the Dutch Republic. Calvinism is the name derived from its most famous leader, John Calvin, an influential Reformation-era theologian from Geneva, Switzerland. The term was first used by opposing Lutherans in the 1550s. Calvin did not approve of the use of this term, and religious scholars have argued its use is misleading, inaccurate, unhelpful, and "inherently distortive."The definitions and boundaries of the terms Reformed Christianity and Calvinism are contested by scholars. As a historical movement, Reformed Christianity began during the Reformation with Huldrych Zwingli in Zürich, Switzerland. Following the failure of the Marburg Colloquy between Zwingli's followers and those of Martin Luther in 1529 to mediate disputes regarding the real presence of Christ in the Lord's Supper, Zwingli's followers were defined by their opposition to Lutherans. They also opposed Anabaptist radicals thus remaining within the Magisterial Reformation. During the 17th-century Arminian Controversy, followers of Jacobus Arminius were forcibly removed from the Dutch Reformed Church for their views regarding predestination and salvation, and thenceforth Arminians would be considered outside the pale of Reformed orthodoxy, though some use the term Reformed to include Arminians while using the term Calvinist to exclude Arminians.
Reformed Christianity has historically included Anglicanism, the branch of Christianity originating in the Church of England. The Anglican confessions are considered Reformed Protestant and leaders of the Protestant Reformation in England, such as the guiding Reformer who shaped Anglican theology Thomas Cranmer, were influenced by and counted among Reformed theologians. As with Lutheranism, the Church of England retained elements of Catholicism such as bishops and vestments, thus sometimes being called "but halfly Reformed" or a middle way between Lutheranism and Reformed Christianity, being closer liturgically to the former and theologically aligned with the latter. Beginning in the 17th century, Anglicanism broadened to the extent that Reformed theology is no longer the sole dominant theology of Anglicanism.
Some scholars argue that the Particular Baptist strand of the Baptist tradition, who hold many of the same beliefs as Reformed Christians but not infant baptism, as expressed in the Second London Confession of Faith of 1689, should be considered part of Reformed Christianity, though this might not have been the view of early Reformed theologians. Others disagree, asserting that any type of Baptist should be considered separate from the Reformed branch of Christianity.
History
The first wave of Reformed theologians included Zwingli, Martin Bucer, Wolfgang Capito, John Oecolampadius, and Guillaume Farel. While from diverse academic backgrounds, their work already contained key themes within Reformed theology, especially the priority of scripture as a source of authority. Scripture was also viewed as a unified whole, which led to a covenantal theology of the sacraments of baptism and the Lord's Supper as visible signs of the covenant of grace. Another shared perspective was their denial of the real presence of Christ in the Eucharist. Each understood salvation to be by grace alone and affirmed a doctrine of unconditional election, the teaching that some people are chosen by God to be saved. Luther and his successor Philipp Melanchthon were significant influences on these theologians and, to a larger extent, those who followed. The doctrine of justification by faith alone, also known as sola fide, was a direct inheritance from Luther.The second generation featured John Calvin, Heinrich Bullinger, Thomas Cranmer, Wolfgang Musculus, Peter Martyr Vermigli, Andreas Hyperius and John à Lasco. Written between 1536 and 1539, Calvin's Institutes of the Christian Religion was one of the most influential works of the era. Toward the middle of the 16th century, these beliefs were formed into one consistent creed which would shape the future definition of the Reformed faith. The 1549 Consensus Tigurinus unified Zwingli and Bullinger's memorialist theology of the Eucharist, which taught that it was simply a reminder of Christ's death, with Calvin's view of it as a means of grace with Christ actually present, though spiritually rather than bodily as in Catholic doctrine. The document demonstrates the diversity as well as unity in early Reformed theology, giving it a stability that enabled it to spread rapidly throughout Europe. This stands in marked contrast to the bitter controversy experienced by Lutherans prior to the 1579 Formula of Concord.
Through Calvin's missionary work in France, his program of reform eventually reached the French-speaking provinces of the Netherlands. Calvinism was adopted in the Electorate of the Palatinate under Frederick III, which led to the formulation of the Heidelberg Catechism in 1563. This and the Belgic Confession were adopted as confessional standards in the first synod of the Dutch Reformed Church in 1571.
In 1573, William the Silent joined the Calvinist Church. Calvinism was declared the official religion of the Kingdom of Navarre by the queen regnant Jeanne d'Albret after her conversion in 1560. Leading divines, either Calvinist or those sympathetic to Calvinism, settled in England, including Bucer, Martyr, and John Łaski, as did John Knox in Scotland. During the First English Civil War, English and Scots Presbyterians produced the Westminster Confession, which became the confessional standard for Presbyterians in the English-speaking world. Having established itself in Europe, the movement continued to spread to areas including North America, South Africa and Korea. While Calvin did not live to see the foundation of his work grow into an international movement, his death allowed his ideas to spread far beyond their city of origin and their borders and to establish their own distinct character.
Spread
Although much of Calvin's work was in Geneva, his publications spread his ideas of a correctly Reformed church to many parts of Europe. In Switzerland, some cantons are still Reformed, and some are Catholic. Calvinism became the dominant doctrine within the Church of Scotland, the Dutch Republic and parts of Germany, especially those adjacent to the Netherlands in the Palatinate, Kassel, and Lippe, spread by Caspar Olevian and Zacharias Ursinus among others. Protected by the local nobility, Calvinism became a significant religion in eastern Hungary and Hungarian-speaking areas of Transylvania., there are about 3.5 million Hungarian Reformed people worldwide.Calvinism was also initially spreading in Flanders, Wallonia, France, Lithuania, and Poland before being mostly erased during the Counter-Reformation. One of the most important Polish reformed theologists was Łaski, who was also involved into organising churches in East Frisia and Stranger's Church in London. Later, a faction called the Polish Brethren broke away from Calvinism on January 22, 1556, when Piotr of Goniądz, a Polish student, spoke out against the doctrine of the Trinity during the general synod of the Reformed churches of Poland held in the village of Secemin. Calvinism gained some popularity in Scandinavia, especially Sweden, but was rejected in favor of Lutheranism after the Synod of Uppsala in 1593.
Many 17th century European settlers in the Thirteen Colonies in British America were Calvinists, who emigrated because of arguments over church structure, including the Pilgrim Fathers. Others were forced into exile, including the French Huguenots. Dutch and French Calvinist settlers were also among the first European colonizers of South Africa, beginning in the 17th century, who became known as Boers or Afrikaners.
Sierra Leone was largely colonized by Calvinist settlers from Nova Scotia, many of whom were Black Loyalists who fought for the British Empire during the American War of Independence. John Marrant had organized a congregation there under the auspices of the Huntingdon Connection. Some of the largest Calvinist communions were started by 19th- and 20th-century missionaries. Especially large are those in Indonesia, Korea and Nigeria. In South Korea there are 20,000 Presbyterian congregations with about 9–10 million church members, scattered in more than 100 Presbyterian denominations. In South Korea, Presbyterianism is the largest Christian denomination.