Ch'oe U
Ch'oe U, also known as Ch'oe I, was a military ruler and official during the later Goryeo period, serving in various positions such as Assistant Executive in Political Affairs, the minister of personnel and war, and Censorate superintendent. Ch'oe U's posthumous title was Kwangnyŏl. His exact birth year is unknown, but he died in 1249. His ancestral seat was Ubong, now known as Gimcheon in Hwanghae Province. Ch'oe U was the son of Ch'oe Ch'unghŏn. After Ch'oe Ch'unghŏn died in 1219, Ch'oe U ruled the Ch'oe military regime until 1249, becoming the second ruler of the Ch'oe family's military government. His first name was Ch'oe U, but he later changed it to Ch'oe I. During his rule, Goryeo faced many hardships, including the Mongol invasion of Korea, which led to the relocation of the capital from Gaegyeong to Ganghwa Island.
Early life
Ch'oe U was the eldest son of Ch'oe Ch'unghŏn, who founded the Ch'oe military regime. Ch'oe Ch'unghŏn had five sons and one daughter from three wives. Ch'oe U was born to the first wife, Lady Song, the daughter of general Song Ch'ŏng. His full brother, Ch'oe Hyang, was a rival for succession but was suppressed throughout Ch'oe U's rule and eventually eliminated in 1230 after a failed rebellion.The exact year of Ch'oe U's birth is not recorded, but given that Ch'oe Ch'unghŏn was born in 1149, Ch'oe U was likely born around the time of the military coup in 1170. This would make Ch'oe U in his twenties when Ch'oe Ch'unghŏn seized power in 1196. There is no record of Ch'oe U's role in his father's coup. He first appears in historical documents in 1202 when a rebellion broke out in Gyeongju, and Ch'oe Ch'unghŏn and Ch'oe U inspected the departing troops. There is little notable about Ch'oe U's activities before his father's death. Records indicate that in 1208, the king temporarily resided at Ch'oe Ch'unghŏn's residence and watched the royal guards play polo there. Ch'oe U did not engage in any significant political activities during this time. However, as Ch'oe Ch'unghŏn's power solidified, Ch'oe U commanded many private soldiers. Ch'oe U's soldiers practiced combat with flags and drums from Seonjukkyo to Sunginmun when the Khitans invaded, indicating his preparedness to maintain power.
Ch'oe U was regarded as one of the finest calligraphers in Korea of his time. Goryeo poet Yi Kyubo considered him one of the "Four Masters" alongside Kim Saeng of Silla, Tanyŏn and Yu Sin of Goryeo. King Huijong even requested Ch'oe U to write the screen texts for Seongyeongjeon and Daegwanjeon, where envoys from the Jin dynasty were received. This suggests that Ch'oe U had uncommon scholarly qualities among military rulers.
Rise to Power
In 1219, Ch'oe Ch'unghŏn passed away. He had already designated his eldest son, Ch'oe U, as his successor. Near death, Ch'oe Ch'unghŏn secretly summoned Ch'oe U and warned him, "If my illness does not improve, trouble may arise in the family, so do not come again." Ch'oe U had his son-in-law, Kim Yaksŏn, care for his father while he stayed away to protect his inheritance.Ch'oe Ch'unghŏn's intuition was correct. His four closest aides, Ch'oe Chunmun, Chi Yunsim, Yu Songjŏl, and Kim Tŏngmyŏng, feared for their fate under Ch'oe U and wanted Ch'oe Hyang to succeed instead. They plotted to kill Ch'oe U when he visited his father, repeatedly sending for him. However, Ch'oe U, heeding his father's warning, did not appear. Kim Tŏngmyŏng eventually betrayed his co-conspirators, informing Ch'oe U, and the conspiracy failed. Ch'oe U exiled the other three conspirators and killed Ch'oe Chunmun during his exile.
A few days later, Ch'oe Ch'unghŏn died. Ch'oe U succeeded him, gaining control of Goryeo's government. He first presented the gold, silver, and precious items accumulated by his father to the king. He returned the lands and enslaved people seized by force to their original owners, garnering public support. He then systematically removed critical figures from his father's administration, including Kŭm Ŭi, Chŏng Pangbo, and Mun Yup'il, under the pretext of eradicating corruption. Thus, Ch'oe U fully consolidated his power.
Dictator
When Ch'oe U ascended to power in 1219, his official position was merely a vice commissioner of the Security Council. By the end of the following year, he had been promoted to Assistant Executive in Political Affairs. He concurrently held third-rank positions in the Ministry of Personnel and the Ministry of War, as well as the superintendent of the Censorate, which was responsible for the inspection of officials. Although he monopolized these critical positions, several officials were still above him in the Goryeo bureaucratic hierarchy. Remarkably, despite holding exclusive power for almost 30 years after that, these were his last official positions, signifying that his authority was established independently of the formal bureaucratic structure.In 1221, he became assistant executive in political affairs, the minister of personnel and war, and superintendent of the Censorate, thereby solidifying his position as ruler. In preparation for the Mongol invasion, he ordered the construction of fortresses in strategic locations like Uiju, Hwaju, and Cheolgwan.
In 1223, he contributed over 300 ŭnbyŏng and 2,000 sŏk of rice, mobilized his private soldiers to repair the outer walls of Gaeseong, and created a 13-story pagoda and flower vases with 200 kŭn of gold, which he enshrined at Heungwangsa Temple.
In 1225, he established the Personnel Authority at his private residence to handle personnel matters of civil and military officials. In the Personnel Authority, personnel appointments were decided and written down in a register, which was then submitted to the king for approval. In 1227, he set up the Chamber of Scholarly Advisors at his residence, where he enlisted renowned scholars to serve in three shifts. The Chamber of Scholarly Advisors and tobang formed the dual pillars of the Ch'oe family's security apparatus. He inherited and expanded his father's tobang, reorganizing it into the Inner and Outer tobang. The Inner tobang guarded Ch'oe U and his residence, while the Outer tobang protected his relatives and external affairs. In 1228, he was bestowed the title of Odae Jingu Gongsin.
In 1229, he forcibly confiscated over a hundred neighboring houses to create a significant polo ground. The field, several hundred steps long and as flat as a chessboard, continued to expand as he demolished more houses, eventually displacing hundreds of families. He often watched his Tobang and Mabyeolcho play polo there for five to six days while hosting banquets for officials and elders. The Mabeolcho was a cavalry unit created by Ch'oe U that served as the Ch'oe family's private guards and ceremonial troops. Ch'oe U organized the Yabyeolcho to patrol at night and suppress thieves. This Yabyeolcho later expanded and reorganized into the Sambyeolcho, which served as police and military units for the Ch'oe regime.
In 1231, upon the death of his wife, Lady Chŏng, her funeral followed the precedent set by Queen Sundeok, the consort of King Yejong. The king granted 70 bolts of silk and conducted her funeral with the honors befitting a queen. She was posthumously honored as Byeonhan Gukdaebuin and given the posthumous title Gyeonghye. The extravagance displayed by officials competing to offer lavish tributes caused a significant rise in market prices.
Mongol Invasions
In 1232, in response to the Mongol invasions, he fortified strategic locations and petitioned the king to move the capital to Ganghwa Island to resist the Mongols. He then moved his household goods and the Directorate-General for Policy Formulation to Ganghwa using 100 carts and helped the people of Gaeseong flee to Ganghwa. He also relocated the people of various provinces to mountain fortresses and islands, ultimately persuading the king to relocate the capital.In 1234, the king conferred the Marquis Jin Yang title for relocating the capital. He established a fief for him, building a private estate and planting pines and cypresses over several miles. Eight years later, in 1242 his title was elevated to Duke.
In 1243, he renovated the Kukchagam and donated 300 seok of rice to the Yanghyeongo for scholarships. He also used his private funds to initiate the second carving of the Tripitaka Koreana after its destruction in Ganghwa, completed in 1251, two years after his death.
Succession
Ch'oe U had three primary wives, but none bore him sons. His two sons were born to his concubine, Seo Ryeonbang. Ch'oe U did not consider these sons suitable as successors. Instead, he planned to pass power to his son-in-law, Kim Yaksŏn. Fearing future power struggles, Ch'oe U ordained his two sons as monks: the first son became Manjong and the second, Manjeon. They were sent to Songgwangsa Temple in Suncheon, and later, Manjeon moved to Ssangbongsa Temple in Hwasun, and Manjong to Dansoksa Temple in Sancheong. However, these brothers caused havoc in the Jeolla and Gyeongsang regions, using the temples as their bases.Meanwhile, in Ganghwa, Kim Yaksŏn prospered politically, even marrying his daughter to the crown prince, the future king Wonjong. However, jealousy from his wife over his interactions with other women led to a complaint to her father, Ch'oe U, resulting in Kim Yaksŏn's elimination.
Summoning his sons
With no successor in sight, his two illegitimate sons' rampages in the south became a significant problem. Eventually, Ch'oe U, advised by Pak Hwŏn and Song Kukch'ŏm, confiscated his sons' ill-gotten wealth and imprisoned their followers.In 1247, he summoned his sons to Ganghwa. During their reunion, they lamented their persecution, even while their father was alive, fearing worse after his death. Moved, Ch'oe U reinstated Ch'oe Manjŏn, renaming him Ch'oe Hang, and had him study the rites.