Fijian language

Fijian is an Austronesian language of the Malayo-Polynesian family spoken by some 350,000–450,000 ethnic Fijians as a native language. In the 2013 Constitution, Fijian is an official language of Fiji, along with English and Fiji Hindi and there is discussion about establishing it as the "national language". Fijian is a VOS language.
Standard Fijian is based on the Bau dialect, which is an East Fijian language.
A pidginized form is used by many Indo-Fijians and Chinese on the islands, while Pidgin Hindustani is used by many rural ethnic Fijians and Chinese in areas dominated by Indo-Fijians.

History

History of the language

The Fijian language was introduced to Fiji 3500 years ago by the islands' first settlers. For millennia, it was the only spoken language in Fiji. In 1835, Methodist missionaries from Australia worked in Fiji to develop a written form of the language. By 1840, they had already developed a writing system, and had published various books on the different dialects of the language. After the independence of Fiji in 1970, Fijian has been used in radio, television, books, and periodicals, and has been taught in schools.

Polynesian relationship and influence on Fijian

Linguistic research on the relationship between the Fijian and Polynesian languages shows that they are not simply a case of one borrowing from the other. Instead, they are part of the same language subgroup, the Central Pacific branch of the Austronesian language family, sharing a common ancestor. This means that a large portion of their shared vocabulary consists of cognates—words with a common origin since the vast majority of similarities come from this shared linguistic heritage. However, it is also true that some words from Polynesia have been adopted into Fijian especially from Tonga, particularly in the eastern dialects.

National language debate

In May and June 2005, several prominent Fijians sought to promote the status of the Fijian language. Fiji had no official language before the 1997 Constitution, which made the Fijian language co-official with English and Fiji Hindi; however, it was not required to be taught in schools. The minister of education, Ro Teimumu Kepa, has also supported appeals to Chairman of the Great Council of Chiefs Ratu Ovini Bokini. Similar appeals have been made by Misiwini Qereqeretabua, Director of the Institute of Language and Culture, and by Apolonia Tamata, a linguistics professor at the University of the South Pacific in Suva. They have stated that recognition of the Fijian language is essential for the basic identity of the nation and acts as a unifying factor for the multicultural society of Fiji.
Mahendra Chaudhry, the leader of the Fiji Labour Party, also supported the cause to make Fijian a national language and a compulsory subject in schools with the same status as Fiji Hindi, a position echoed by Krishna Vilas of the National Reconciliation Committee.
Since 2013, when a new constitution was adopted, Fijian is established as an official language of Fiji alongside Fiji Hindi and English.

Phonology

The consonant phonemes of Fijian are as shown in the following table:
The consonant written has been described as a prenasalized trill or trilled affricate. However, it is only rarely pronounced with a trilled release; the primary feature distinguishing it from is that it is postalveolar,, rather than dental/alveolar.
The sounds and occur only in loanwords from other languages. The sounds and only occur for speakers from certain regions of the country.
The sounds and occur as allophones of and.
The glottal stop occurs in the Boumaa Fijian used to illustrate this article, but is not found in the standard language. It descends from an earlier sound in most Fijian dialects.
Note the difference in place of articulation between the voiced-voiceless fricative pairs: bilabial vs. labiodental, and dental vs. alveolar.
The vowel phonemes are:
In addition, there is the rising diphthong.
Syllables can consist of a consonant followed by a vowel or a single vowel.
Word stress is based on moras: a short vowel is one mora, diphthongs and long vowels are two morae. Primary stress is on the penultimate mora of the phonological word. That is, if the last syllable of a word is short, then the penultimate syllable will be stressed, while if the last syllable contains either a long vowel or a diphthong, then it receives primary stress. Stress is not lexical and can shift when suffixes are attached to the root.
Examples:

Stress on the penultimate syllable : síga, ;
Stress on the final syllable : cauravóu, .
Stress shift: cábe, → cabé-ta,

Orthography

The Fijian alphabet is based on the Latin script and consists of the following letters. There is almost a one-to-one correspondence between letters and phonemes.

Capital	Lowercase	IPA	Others
A	a
B	b
C	c
D	d		di
E	e	~
F	f
G	g
H	h	~
I	i
J	j	~
K	k
L	l
M	m
N	n		nr
O	o	~
P	p
Q	q
R	r
S	s
T	t		ti
U	u
V	v
W	w
Y	y	~
Z	z

In the 1980s, scholars compiling a dictionary added several more consonants and a few consonant clusters to the alphabet. These newcomers were necessary to handle words entering Standard Fijian from not only English, but from other Fijian languages or dialects as well. These are the most important additions:, as in and, as in .
For phonological reasons and are pronounced, rather than, . Hence, the Fijian name for Fiji,, from an allophonic pronunciation of as.
In addition, the digraph stands for retroflex, or a prenasalized trill in careful pronunciation, or more commonly for some people and in some dialects.
The vowel letters have roughly their IPA values,. The vowel length contrast is not usually indicated in writing, except in dictionaries and textbooks for learners of the language, where it is indicated by a macron over the vowel in question; Dixon, in the work cited below, doubles all long vowels in his spelling system. Diphthongs are, pronounced.

Morpho-syntax

Negation

In order to negate a phrase or clause in Fijian, certain verbs are used to create this distinction. These verbs of negation are known as semi-auxiliary verbs. Semi-auxiliary verbs fulfil the functions of main verbs and have a NP or complement clause as their subject or me ). Within a complement clause, the semi-auxiliary verb qualifies the predicate.

Semi-auxiliary verbs

One semi-auxiliary verb used to express negation in Fijian is sega. This semi-auxiliary can be translated as either "there are no-" or "it is not the case that", depending on the subject it relates to. In terms of numerical expression, sega is also used to express the quantity "none". This negator can be used in almost all situations, with the exception of the imperative or in a me clauses. When sega takes a NP as its subject, the meaning "there are no-" is assumed:
Predicate clauses can also be negated in Fijian with the semi-auxiliary verb sega. This can only be completed when the predicate is placed into a complement clause. The subject of sega must also be ni, which introduces the complement clause. It is then translated as "it is not the case that ". An example of this construction is shown here:
Hence, the only way a verb can be negated in Fijian is when it forms part of the construction. However, in Fijian the head of a predicate phrase may belong to almost any word class. If another word is used, the structure of negation alters. This distinction can be shown through diverse examples of the negating NPs in Fijian. The below examples show the difference between a noun as the head of a NP and a noun as the head of a predicate in a complement clause, within negation:
;NP as subject of sega
;Ni as the subject of sega
Additionally, sega can also work with relator se which introduces interrogative clauses. This combination creates a form translatable as "or not":
Another common negator is or waa, which is translatable as "don't, not". Differently to sega, this semi-auxiliary verb is used for imperatives and in me clauses. Therefore, these semi-auxiliaries are fixed, and cannot be used interchangeably. and waa have the same meaning, however waa may be more intense; in most instances either semi-auxiliary verb can be used. ~ waa can take a NP as its subject, but most commonly takes the ni complement as a subject, which is demonstrated below:
An example of ~ waa used in imperative structure can be seen here:
In the case of pronouns, they can only be negated when they form part of the NP, when acting as the predicate head. Therefore, pronouns cannot be the NP subject of semi-auxiliary verbs sega or ~ waa in the way that general nouns can.

Combining semi-auxiliary verbs

Sega and ~ waa can be combined with other auxiliary verbs to produce diverse constructions. Both sega and ~ waa can connect with semi-auxiliary rawa to negate the concept of possibility which is attached to the verb .

Modifiers in negation

Two main modifiers, soti and sara play key roles in negation in Fijian, and work in conjunction with semi-auxiliary verbs. Soti is added after negators sega and ~ waa, and functions as an intensity marker. The construction sega soti is translatable as. The sega soti construction requires an adjective, and must take ni as its subject in order to function. Soti can be found in position immediately after sega, but may also be found after the ni relator without changing the meaning of the phrase. The primary construction is shown below:
Similarly, to soti, the modifier sara can also be used in conjunction with sega and ~ waa. This combination is used to stress the negative sense and aspect of a phrase.

Pronouns and person markers

The pronominal system of Fijian is remarkably rich. Like many other languages, it recognises three persons; first person, second person, and third person. There is no distinction between human, non-human, animate, or inanimate.
Four numbers are represented; singular, dual, paucal, and plural—'paucal' refers to more than two people who have some relationship, as a family or work group; if none, 'plural' is used. Like many other Oceanic languages, Fijian pronouns are marked for number and clusivity.

Forms and function

Each pronoun can have five forms, but some person-number combinations may have the same form for more than one function, as can be seen in the table above.
The forms are:
Cardinal – used when a pronoun occurs as the head of a NP. A cardinal pronoun is usually preceded by the proper article o, except when preceded by a preposition:
Subject – the first constituent of a predicate, acts as person marking. Examples can be seen in examples and above: era and au, and below: o
Object – follows the -i-final form of a transitive verb:
Possessive suffix – attaches to inalienable nouns, and
Possessive – precedes the NP head of the 'possessed' constituent in a possessive construction.

Use

The major clausal structure in Fijian minimally includes a predicate, which usually has a verb at its head. The initial element in the predicate is the subject form pronoun:
This 'subject marker + verb' predicate construction is obligatory, every other constituent is optional. The subject may be expanded upon by an NP following the predicate:
The subject pronoun constituent of a predicate acts mainly as a person marker.
Fijian is a verb–object–subject language, and the subject pronoun may be translated as its equivalent in English, the subject NP of a clause in Fijian follows the verb and the object if it is included.
The social use of pronouns is largely driven by respect and hierarchy. Each of the non-singular second person pronouns can be used for a singular addressee. For example, if one's actual or potential in-laws are addressed, the 2DU pronoun should be used. Similarly, when a brother or sister of the opposite sex is addressed, the 2PA pronoun should be used, and it can also be used for same-sex siblings when the speaker wishes to show respect. The 2PL pronoun can be used to show respect to elders, particularly the village chief.

Possession

Possession is a grammatical term for a special relationship between two entities: a "possessor" and a "possessed". The relationship may be one of legal ownership, but in Fijian, like many other Austronesian languages, it is often much broader, encompassing kin relations, body parts, parts of an inanimate whole and personal qualities and concepts such as control, association and belonging.
Fijian has a complex system of possessive constructions, depending on the nature of the possessor and of the possessed. Choosing the appropriate structure depends on knowing whether the possessor is a personal or place name, a pronoun, or a common noun, and also on whether the possessed is a free or bound noun.

Possessor

Only an animate noun may be a possessor in the true possessive constructions shown below, with possession marked on the possessed NP in a number of ways. For personal and place name possessors, the possessive construction may be made by affixing the possessive suffix –i to the possessed noun, bound or free. If the possessor is a pronoun, the possessed noun must be marked by one of the pronominal markers which specify person, number and inclusivity/exclusivity. If the possessor is inanimate, the possessive particle ni is usually placed between the possessed NP and the possessor NP. The particle ni then indicates association, rather than formal possession, but the construction is still regarded as a possessive construction.

Possessed

Free nouns can stand alone and need no affix; most nouns in Fijian fall into this class. Bound nouns require a suffix to complete them and are written ending in a hyphen to indicate this requirement. Tama- and tina- are examples of bound nouns. The classes of free and bound nouns roughly correspond with the concept, common in Austronesian languages, of alienable and inalienable possession, respectively. Alienable possession denotes a relationship in which the thing possessed is not culturally considered an inherent part of the possessor, and inalienable possession indicates a relationship in which the possessed is regarded as an intrinsic part of the possessor.
Body parts and kin relations are typical examples of inalienable possession. Inanimate objects are typical examples of alienable possession.
The alienable nature of free nouns is further marked by prefixes, known as classifiers, indicating certain other characteristics. Some common examples are me- when the possessed noun is something drinkable, ke- when the noun is something edible and we- when the referent of the possessed noun is personal property.

Possessive constructions

The word order of a possessive construction for all except inanimate possessors is possessed NP-classifier + possessive marker + possessor NP. For an inanimate possessor, the word order is possessed NP + ni + possessor NP.

	POSSESSED	POSSESSED
POSSESSOR	bound noun	free noun
personal/place name	suffix -i	classifier plus suffix -i; or suffix -i
pronoun	pronominal suffix; or suffix -i	classifier plus possessor pronoun
human noun	pronominal suffix, expanded by post-head possessor NP; or suffix -i; or NP ni NP	classifier plus possessor pronoun, expanded by post-head possessor NP
animate noun	NP ni NP ; or pronominal suffix, expanded by post-head possessor NP	NP ni NP; or classifier plus possessor pronoun, expanded by post-head possessor NP
inanimate noun	NP ni NP	NP ni NP

Note that there is some degree of flexibility in the use of possessive constructions as described in this table.

Syntax

The normal Fijian word order is VOS :

Sample phrases

Greetings

Below are some examples of Fijian greetings.

Fijian	English	IPA
Au domoni iko.	I love you.
bula	hello
io	yes
kerekere	please
moce	goodbye
ni sa bula	hello, welcome
sega	no
sega na leqa	no worries
sota tale	see you later
Vacava tiko?	How are you?
vinaka	thank you
yadra	good morning

Sample text

Era sucu ena galala na tamata yadua, era tautauvata ena nodra dokai kei na nodra dodonu. E tiko na nodra vakasama kei na nodra lewaeloma, sa dodonu mera veidokadokai ena yalo ni veitacini.
All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.
''Universal Declaration of Human Rights, Article 1''

Grammatical abbreviations

National language debate

In May and June 2005, a number of prominent Fiji Islanders called for the status of Fijian to be upgraded. It was not an official language before the adoption of the 1997 Constitution, which made it co-official with English and Fiji Hindi. It is still not a compulsory subject in schools, but then Education Minister, Ro Teimumu Kepa, had endorsed calls for that to change, as had the former Great Council of Chiefs Chairman of the [Great Council of Chiefs|Chairman] Ratu Ovini Bokini. Similar calls also came from Misiwini Qereqeretabua, the former Director of the Institute of Fijian Language and Culture, and from Apolonia Tamata, a linguistics lecturer at Suva's University of the South Pacific, both of whom said that recognition of the Fijian language is essential to the nation's basic identity and as a unifying factor in Fiji's multicultural society.
The Fiji Labour Party leader Mahendra Chaudhry also endorsed the call for Fijian to be made a national language and a compulsory school subject if the same status was given to Fiji Hindi, a position that was echoed by Krishna Vilas of the National Reconciliation Committee.