Bikini Atoll
Bikini Atoll, known as Eschscholtz Atoll between the 19th century and 1946, is a coral reef in the Marshall Islands consisting of 23 islands surrounding a central lagoon. The atoll is at the northern end of the Ralik Chain, approximately northwest of the capital Majuro.
After the Second World War, the atoll was chosen by the United States as a nuclear weapon testing site. It would be the site of the fourth nuclear bomb detonation and would go on to be the site of many more tests. The 167 people who lived on Bikini were instructed to leave so the military could test nuclear bombs, a forced relocation. In 1946 they moved to Rongerik, a small island east of Bikini Atoll, but it turned out to have inadequate resources to support the population. The islanders began experiencing starvation by early 1948 and were moved again to Kwajalein Atoll. The United States used the islands and lagoon as the site of 23 nuclear tests until 1958, when it was discovered that the fallout from nuclear testing was much more dangerous than was previously thought. To this day, the Bikini islanders are prohibited from returning home due to nuclear contamination. There are some signs of recovery as the amount of radiation slowly decreases.
In 1972, about 100 residents were voluntarily returned to their home island. But scientists found dangerously high levels of strontium-90 in well water in May 1978, and the residents' bodies were carrying abnormally high concentrations of caesium-137. They were evacuated again in September 1978. The atoll is occasionally visited today by divers and a few scientists, and it is occupied by a handful of caretakers. The people of the atoll, which now number in the thousands, have spread out to other Marshallese islands and the United States. A multi-million dollar trust fund, which had been supporting services for many Bikini inhabitants since the 1980s, was drained in the late 2010s.
In the 21st century, the atoll is a World Heritage Site, remembered for its role in the Cold War and the post-nuclear age. It is noted as an enclave of nature, and the radiation has decreased enough that tourism is possible. However, the lingering radioactive contamination makes it unfit to return from what was expected to be short-term evacuation, especially as it is not recommended to eat plants or wildlife.
Etymology
The island's English name is derived from the German colonial name Bikini given to the atoll when it was part of German New Guinea. The German name is transliterated from the Marshallese name for the island, Pikinni, "Pik" meaning "plane surface" and "Ni" meaning "coconut tree", or surface of coconuts.Culture
Bikini islanders' traditional lifestyle was based on cultivating plants and eating shellfish and fish. They were skilled boatbuilders and navigators, sailing the two-hulled proa to and from islets around Bikini and other atolls in the Marshall Islands. They were relatively isolated and had developed a society bound by extended family association and tradition. Every lagoon was led by a king and queen, with a following of chieftains and chief women who constituted a ruling caste.Japan occupied the islands starting in 1914. The islanders worked the copra plantations under the watchful eye of the Japanese, who took a portion of the sales. Chiefs could retain as much as $20,000 per year, and the remainder was distributed to the workers. The Marshall islanders took pride in extending hospitality to one another, even distant relatives.
Clothing and dress
Men traditionally wore a fringed skirt about long. Women wore two mats about a yard square each, made by weaving pandanus and hibiscus leaves together and belted around the waist. Children were usually naked. Christian missionaries from Oahu arrived in the late 19th century and influenced the islanders' notions of modesty. They introduced a dress for women which was a long, wide, loose-fitting gown with long sleeves and a high neck, intended to cover as much skin as possible. The dress is called wau, from the name of the Hawaiian island of Oahu.It is customary to remove one's shoes or sandals when taking a seat at someone's home. Marshallese women traditionally cover their thighs as well. Women generally wear cotton muumuus or similar clothing that covers most of the body. Personal health is not often discussed except within the family, and women are especially private about female-related health issues, although they are willing to talk about their breasts.
Marshallese women swim in muumuus made of a fine polyester that quickly dries. In the capital of Majuro, revealing cocktail dresses are not considered appropriate for both islanders and guests. With the increasing influence of Western media, the younger generation wears shorts, though the older generation equates shorts with loose morals. T-shirts, jeans, skirts, and makeup are making their way to the islands via the media.
Land-based wealth
The Bikini islanders continue to maintain land rights as the primary measure of wealth.Each family is part of a clan, which owns all land. The clan owes allegiance to a chief. The chiefs oversee the clan heads, who are supported by laborers. The Iroij control land tenure, resource use and distribution, and settle disputes. The Alap supervise land maintenance and daily activities. The Dri-jerbal work the land including farming, cleaning, and construction.
The Marshallese society is matrilineal and land is passed down from generation to generation through the mother. Land ownership ties families together into clans. Grandparents, parents, grandchildren, aunts, uncles, and cousins form extended, close-knit family groups. Gatherings tend to become big events. One of the most significant family events is the first birthday of a child, which relatives and friends celebrate with feasts and song.
Payments made in the 20th century as reparations for damage to the Bikini Atoll and the islanders' way of life have elevated their income relative to other Marshall Island residents. It has caused some Bikini islanders to become economically dependent on the payments from the trust fund. This dependency has eroded individuals' interest in traditional economic pursuits like taro and copra production. The move also altered traditional patterns of social alliance and political organization. On Bikini, rights to land and land ownership were the major factor in social and political organization and leadership. After relocation and settlement on Kili, a dual system of land tenure evolved. Disbursements from the trust fund were based in part to land ownership on Bikini and based on current land tenure on Kili.
Before the residents were relocated, they were led by a local chief and under the nominal control of the Paramount Chief of the Marshall Islands. Afterward, they had greater interaction with representatives of the trust fund and the U.S. government and began to look to them for support.
In the late 2010s, the islanders pushed for complete control of the trust fund, which was tens of millions of dollars. The same leaders which had pushed for increased control, rang up huge bills in travel expenses, buying real estate, aircraft, and boats. In 2016, the Bikini trust fund stood at $71 million in its last audit, with $4 million have been withdrawn. After leasing control, the account was drained leaving only $4 million by 2020, and $100,000 in 2023. Then with funds depleted, the power and deliveries to Kili were stopped, and salaries were not paid, this led to declaration of emergency, and the Marshallese government had to step in to try to help.
Language
Most Marshallese speak both the Marshallese language and another language. Some of the languages reflect the nation's history with Germany, Japan, and the United States. Government agencies use Marshallese, though English is very popular also.Environment
Bikini Atoll is part of the Ralik Chain within the Marshall Islands.Nuclear test site
The United States detonated 23 nuclear devices between 1946 and 1958 at seven test sites on the reef, inside the atoll, in the air, and underwater. They had a combined yield of about 77 Mt. The testing began with the Operation Crossroads series in July 1946. The residents initially accepted resettlement voluntarily to Rongerik Atoll, believing that they would be able to return home within a short time. However, Rongerik could not produce enough food, and the islanders starved. They could not return home, so they were relocated to Kwajalein Atoll for six months before choosing to live on Kili Island, a small island one-sixth the size of their home island. Some were able to return to Bikini Island in 1972; however, further testing revealed dangerous levels of strontium-90. They eventually moved to other atolls in the Marshall Islands and the United States, due to problems with this plan.In 1954, the Castle Bravo nuclear test took place on Bikini Atoll, with a yield of 15 Mt. This nuclear test was only one out of 67 total nuclear tests launched on the surrounding Marshall Islands and reefs. The nuclear radiation and fallout that followed the Castle Bravo test alone was substantial enough to discourage future habitation of the islands. Consequently, Bikini Atoll was subject to initial radioactive testing of soil composition and well water. Nuclear fallout deposits were tested in order to estimate how much area of the island was impacted by radionuclides and caesium-137 specifically. The technology used to measure the estimated amount of nuclear fallout deposit was known as HYSPLIT. This technology used meteorological sciences to model and map out nuclear fallout depositions of caesium-137 on the Marshall Islands. Initial fallout cloud debris, radionuclide particles, and actual caesium-137 particles were all estimated during nuclear testing. This data was then compared with past radiological testing results collected by HYSPLIT to predict total nuclear fallout deposition of caesium-137 on island soil.
The United States government established several trust funds which as of 2013 covered medical treatment and other costs and paid about $550 annually to each individual.