Australian English
Australian English is the set of varieties of the English language native to Australia. It is the country's common language and de facto national language. While Australia has no official language, English is the first language of the majority of the population, and has been entrenched as the de facto national language since the onset of British settlement, being the only language spoken in the home for 72% of Australians in 2021. It is also the main language used in compulsory education, as well as federal, state and territorial legislatures and courts.
Australian English began to diverge from British and Hiberno-English after the First Fleet established the Colony of New South Wales in 1788. Australian English arose from a dialectal melting pot created by the intermingling of early settlers who were from a variety of dialectal regions of Great Britain and Ireland, though its most significant influences were the dialects of South East England. By the 1820s, the native-born colonists' speech was recognisably distinct from speakers in Britain and Ireland.
Australian English differs from other varieties in its phonology, pronunciation, lexicon, idiom, grammar and spelling. Australian English is relatively consistent across the continent, although it encompasses numerous [Variation in Australian English|regional and sociocultural varieties]. "General Australian" describes the de facto standard dialect, which is perceived to be free of pronounced regional or sociocultural markers and is often used in the media.
History
Similar to early American English, Australian English passed through a process of extensive dialect levelling and mixing which produced a relatively homogeneous new variety of English which was easily understood by all.The earliest Australian English was spoken by the first generation of native-born colonists in the Colony of New South Wales from the end of the 18th century. These native-born children were exposed to a wide range of dialects from across the British Isles. The dialects of South East England, including most notably the traditional Cockney dialect of London, were particularly influential on the development of the new variety and constituted "the major input of the various sounds that went into constructing" Australian English. All the other regions of England were represented among the early colonists. A large proportion of early convicts and colonists were from Ireland, and many of them spoke Irish as a sole or first language. They were joined by other non-native speakers of English from the Scottish Highlands and Wales. Peter Miller Cunningham's 1827 book Two Years in New South Wales described the distinctive accent and vocabulary that had developed among the native-born colonists.
The first of the Australian gold rushes in the 1850s began a large wave of immigration, during which about two percent of the population of the United Kingdom emigrated to the colonies of New South Wales and Victoria. The Gold Rushes brought immigrants and linguistic influences from many parts of the world. An example was the introduction of vocabulary from American English, including some terms later considered to be typically Australian, such as bushwhacker and squatter. This American influence was continued with the popularity of American films from the early 20th century and the influx of American military personnel that settled in Australia and New Zealand during World War II; seen in the enduring persistence of such universally-accepted terms as okay and guys.
The publication of Edward Ellis Morris's Austral English: A Dictionary Of Australasian Words, Phrases And Usages in 1898, which extensively catalogued Australian English vocabulary, started a wave of academic interest and codification during the 20th century which resulted in Australian English becoming established as an endonormative variety with its own internal norms and standards. This culminated in publications such as the 1981 first edition of the Macquarie Dictionary, a major English language dictionary based on Australian usage, and the 1988 first edition of The Australian National Dictionary, a historical dictionary documenting the history of Australian English vocabulary and idiom.
Phonology and pronunciation
The most obvious way in which Australian English is distinctive from other varieties of English is through its unique pronunciation. It shares most similarity with New Zealand English. Like most dialects of English, it is distinguished primarily by the phonetic quality of its vowels.Vowels
The vowels of Australian English can be divided according to length. The long vowels, which include monophthongs and diphthongs, mostly correspond to the tense vowels used in analyses of Received Pronunciation as well as its centring diphthongs. The short vowels, consisting only of monophthongs, correspond to the RP lax vowels.There exist pairs of long and short vowels with overlapping vowel quality giving Australian English phonemic length distinction, which is also present in some regional south-eastern dialects of the UK and eastern seaboard dialects in the US. An example of this feature is the distinction between ferry and fairy.
As with New Zealand English and General American English, the weak-vowel merger is complete in Australian English: unstressed is merged into, unless it is followed by a velar consonant. Examples of this feature are the following pairings, which are pronounced identically in Australian English: Rosa's and roses, as well as Lennon and Lenin. Other examples are the following pairs, which rhyme in Australian English: abbott with rabbit, and dig it with bigot.
Most varieties of Australian English exhibit only a partial trap-bath split. The words bath, grass and can't are always pronounced with the "long" of father. Throughout the majority of the country, the "flat" of man is the dominant pronunciation for the a vowel in the following words: dance, advance, plant, example and answer. The exception is the state of South Australia, where a more advanced trap-bath split is found, and where the dominant pronunciation of all the preceding words incorporates the "long" of father.
Consonants
There is little variation in the sets of consonants used in different English dialects but there are variations in how these consonants are used. Australian English is no exception.Australian English is uniformly non-rhotic; that is, the sound does not appear at the end of a syllable or immediately before a consonant. As with many non-rhotic dialects, linking can occur when a word that has a final in the spelling comes before another word that starts with a vowel. An intrusive may similarly be inserted before a vowel in words that do not have in the spelling in certain environments, namely after the long vowel and after word final. This can be heard in "law-r-and order", where an intrusive R is voiced between the AW and the A.
As with North American English, intervocalic alveolar flapping is a feature of Australian English: prevocalic and surface as the alveolar tap after sonorants other than as well as at the end of a word or morpheme before any vowel in the same breath group. Examples of this feature are that the following pairs are pronounced similarly or identically: latter and ladder, as well as rated and raided.
Yod-dropping generally occurs after,,, but not after, and. Accordingly, suit is pronounced as, lute as, Zeus as and enthusiasm as. Other cases of and, as well as and, have coalesced to,, and respectively for many speakers. is generally retained in other consonant clusters.
In common with most varieties of Scottish English and American English, the phoneme is pronounced by Australians as a "dark" l in almost all positions, unlike other dialects such as Received Pronunciation, Hiberno (Irish) English, etc.
Pronunciation
Differences in stress, weak forms and standard pronunciation of isolated words occur between Australian English and other forms of English, which while noticeable do not impair intelligibility.The affixes -ary, -ery, -ory, -bury, -berry and -mony can be pronounced either with a full vowel or a schwa . Although some words like necessary are almost universally pronounced with the full vowel, older generations of Australians are relatively likely to pronounce these affixes with a schwa as is typical in British English. Meanwhile, younger generations are relatively likely to use a full vowel.
Words ending in unstressed -ile derived from Latin adjectives ending in -ilis are pronounced with a full vowel, so that fertile sounds like fur tile rather than rhyming with turtle.
In addition, miscellaneous pronunciation differences exist when compared with other varieties of English in relation to various isolated words, with some of those pronunciations being unique to Australian English. For example:
- As with American English, the vowel in yoghurt and the prefix homo- are pronounced with rather than ;Vitamin, migraine and privacy are all pronounced with in the stressed syllable rather than ;Dynasty and patronise, by contrast, are usually subject to trisyllabic laxing like in Britain, alongside US-derived ;
- The prefix paedo- is pronounced rather than ;
- In loanwords, the vowel spelled with is often nativized as the vowel, similar to American English, rather than the vowel, as in British English. For example, pasta is pronounced, analogous to American English, rather than, as in British English.Urinal is stressed on the first syllable and with the schwa for I: ;Harass and harassment are pronounced with the stress on the second, rather than the first syllable;
- The suffix -sia is pronounced rather than ;
- The word foyer is pronounced, rather than ;Tomato, vase and data are pronounced with instead of :, with being uncommon but acceptable;Zebra and leisure are pronounced and rather than and, both having disyllabic laxing;Status varies between British-derived with the vowel and American-derived with the vowel;
- Conversely, precedence, precedent and derivatives are mainly pronounced with the vowel in the stressed syllable, rather than : ;Basil is pronounced, rather than ;
- Conversely, cache is usually pronounced, rather than the more conventional ;Buoy is pronounced as rather than ;
- The E in congress and progress is not reduced: ;
- Conversely, the unstressed O in silicon, phenomenon and python stands for a schwa: ;
- In Amazon, Lebanon, marathon and pantheon, however, the unstressed O stands for the vowel, somewhat as with American English: ;
- The colour name maroon is pronounced with the vowel:.
Variation
Relative to many other national dialect groupings, Australian English is relatively homogeneous across the country. Some relatively minor regional differences in pronunciation exist. A limited range of word choices is strongly regional in nature. Consequently, the geographical background of individuals may be inferred if they use words that are peculiar to particular Australian states or territories and, in some cases, even smaller regions. In addition, some Australians speak creole languages derived from Australian English, such as Australian Kriol, Torres Strait Creole and Norfuk.Academic research has also identified notable sociocultural variation within Australian English, which is mostly evident in phonology.
Regional variation
Although Australian English is relatively homogeneous, there are some regional variations. The dialects of English spoken in the various states and territories of Australia differ slightly in vocabulary and phonology.Most regional differences are in word usage. Swimming clothes are known as cossies, togs or swimmers in New South Wales, togs in Queensland, and bathers in Victoria, Tasmania, Western Australia and South Australia. What Queensland calls a stroller is usually called a pram in Victoria, Western Australia, South Australia, New South Wales, and Tasmania.
Preference for some synonymous words also differ between states. Garbage dominates over rubbish in New South Wales and Queensland, while rubbish is more popular in Victoria, Tasmania, Western Australia and South Australia.
Additionally, the word footy generally refers to the most popular football code in an area; that is, rugby league or rugby union depending on the local area, in most of New South Wales and Queensland. More commonly "rugby" is used to distinguish rugby union from "footy" which refers to the more popular rugby league. Footy commonly is used for Australian rules football elsewhere however the term refers to the both prominent codes, rugby league and Australian rules football, interchangeably, depending on context of usage outside of regional perrameters. In some pockets of Melbourne & Western Sydney "football" and more rarely "footy" will refer to Association football although unlike more common international terminology, Australian English uses the term soccer and not football or footy. Beer glasses are also named differently in different states. Distinctive grammatical patterns exist such as the use of the interrogative eh, which is particularly associated with Queensland. Secret Santa and Kris Kringle are used in all states, with the former being more common in Queensland.
;South Australia
The most pronounced variation in phonology is between South Australia and the other states and territories. The trap–bath split is more complete in South Australia, in contrast to the other states. Accordingly, words such as dance, advance, plant, example and answer are pronounced with far more frequently in South Australia while the older is dominant elsewhere in Australia. L-vocalisation is also more common in South Australia than other states.
;Centring diphthongs
In Western Australian and Queensland English, the vowels in near and square are typically realised as centring diphthongs, whereas in the other states they may also be realised as monophthongs:.
;Salary–celery merger
A feature common in Victorian English is salary–celery merger, whereby a Victorian pronunciation of Ellen may sound like Alan and Victoria's capital city Melbourne may sound like Malbourne to speakers from other states. There is also regional variation in before .
;Full-fool allophones
In some parts of Australia, notably Victoria, a fully backed allophone of, transcribed, is common before. As a result, the pairs full/fool and pull/pool differ phonetically only in vowel length for those speakers. The usual allophone for is further forward in Queensland and New South Wales than Victoria.
;Final particle but
A final particle but, where "but" is the concluding word in a sentence, has also evolved as a distinctive feature in Australian English, particularly in Western Australia and Queensland. In conversational Australian English it is thought to be a turn-yielding particle that marks contrastive content in the utterance it closes. It is a linguistic trait sometimes employed in Australian literature to indicate that the character is quintessentially Australian.
Sociocultural variation
The General Australian accent serves as the standard variety of English across the country. According to linguists, it emerged during the 19th century. General Australian is the dominant variety across the continent, and is particularly so in urban areas. The increasing dominance of General Australian reflects its prominence on radio and television since the latter half of the 20th century.Recent generations have seen a comparatively smaller proportion of the population speaking with the Broad sociocultural variant, which differs from General Australian in its phonology. The Broad variant is found across the continent and is relatively more prominent in rural and outer-suburban areas.
A largely historical Cultivated sociocultural variant, which adopted features of British Received Pronunciation and which was commonplace in official media during the early 20th century, had become largely extinct by the onset of the 21st century.
Australian Aboriginal English is made up of a range of forms which developed differently in different parts of Australia, and are said to vary along a continuum, from forms close to Standard Australian English to more non-standard forms. There are distinctive features of accent, grammar, words and meanings, as well as language use.
Academics have noted the emergence of numerous ethnocultural dialects of Australian English that are spoken by people from some minority non-English speaking backgrounds. These ethnocultural varieties contain features of General Australian English as adopted by the children of immigrants blended with some non-English language features, such as Afro-Asiatic languages and languages of Asia. Samoan English is also influencing Australian English. Other ethnolects include those of Lebanese and Vietnamese Australians.
A high rising terminal in Australian English was noted and studied earlier than in other varieties of English. The feature is sometimes called Australian questioning intonation. Research published in 1986, regarding vernacular speech in Sydney, suggested that high rising terminal was initially spread by young people in the 1960s. It found that the high rising terminal was used more than twice as often by young people than older people, and is more common among women than men. In the United Kingdom, it has occasionally been considered one of the variety's stereotypical features, and its spread there is attributed to the popularity of Australian soap operas.
Vocabulary
Intrinsic traits
Australian English has many words and idioms which are unique to the dialect.Commonly known
Internationally well-known examples of Australian terminology include outback, meaning a remote, sparsely populated area, the bush, meaning either a native forest or a country area in general, and g'day, a greeting. Dinkum, or fair dinkum means "true", "legitimate" or "is that true?", among other things, depending on context and inflection. The derivative dinky-di means "true" or devoted: a "dinky-di Aussie" is a "true Australian".Historical references
Australian poetry, such as "The Man from Snowy River", as well as folk songs such as "Waltzing Matilda", contain many historical Australian words and phrases that are understood by Australians even though some are not in common usage today.British English similarities and differences
Australian English, in common with British English, uses the word mate to mean friend, as well as the word bloody as a mild expletive or intensifier. "Mate" is also used in multiple ways including to indicate "mateship" or formally call out the target of a threat or insult, depending on intonation and context.Several words used by Australians were at one time used in the UK but have since fallen out of usage or changed in meaning there. For example, creek in Australia, as in North America, means a stream or small river, whereas in the UK it is typically a watercourse in a marshy area; paddock in Australia means field, whereas in the UK it means a small enclosure for livestock; bush or scrub in Australia, as in North America, means a natural, uncultivated area of vegetation or flora, whereas in England they are commonly used only in proper names.
Aboriginal-derived words
Some elements of Aboriginal languages have been adopted by Australian English—mainly as names for places, flora and fauna and local culture. Many such are localised, and do not form part of general Australian use, while others, such as kangaroo, boomerang, budgerigar, wallaby and so on have become international. Other examples are cooee and hard yakka. The former is used as a high-pitched call, for attracting attention, which travels long distances. Cooee is also a notional distance: "if he's within cooee, we'll spot him". Hard yakka means "hard work" and is derived from yakka, from the Jagera/Yagara language once spoken in the Brisbane region.The word bung, meaning "dead" was originally a Yagara word which was used in the pidgin widely spoken across Australia.
Places
Many towns or suburbs of Australia have also been influenced or named after Aboriginal words. The best-known example is the capital, Canberra, named after a local Ngunnawal language word thought to mean "women's breasts" or "meeting place".Figures of speech and abbreviations
Litotes, such as "not bad", "not much" and "you're not wrong", are also used.Diminutives and hypocorisms are common and are often used to indicate familiarity. Some common examples are arvo, barbie, smoko, Aussie and Straya. This may also be done with people's names to create nicknames. For example, "Gazza" from Gary, or "Smitty" from John Smith. The use of the suffix -o originates in, which is both a postclitic and a suffix with much the same meaning as in Australian English.
In informal speech, incomplete comparisons are sometimes used, such as "sweet as". "Full", "fully" or "heaps" may precede a word to act as an intensifier. This was more common in regional Australia and South Australia but has been in common usage in urban Australia for decades. The suffix "-ly" is sometimes omitted in broader Australian English. For instance, "really good" can become "real good".
Measures
Australia's switch to the metric system in the 1970s changed most of the country's vocabulary of measurement from imperial to metric measures. Since the switch to metric, heights of individuals are listed in centimetres on official documents and distances by road on signs are listed in terms of kilometres and metres.Comparison with other varieties
Where British and American English vocabulary differs, sometimes Australian English shares a usage with one of those varieties, as with petrol and mobile phone which are shared with British English, or truck and eggplant which are shared with American English.In other circumstances, Australian English sometimes favours a usage which is different from both British and American English as with:
Differences exist between Australian English and other varieties of English, where different terms can be used for the same subject or the same term can be ascribed different meanings. Non-exhaustive examples of terminology associated with food, transport and clothing is used below to demonstrate the variations which exist between Australian English and other varieties:
Terms with different meanings in Australian English
There also exist words which in Australian English are ascribed different meanings from those ascribed in other varieties of English, for instance:Asian in Australian English commonly refers to people of East Asian ancestry, while in British English it commonly refers to people of South Asian ancestryBiscuit in Australian English refers to AmE cookie and cracker, while in American English it refers to a leavened bread product Chips refers both to British English crisps and to American English French fries Football in Australian English most commonly refers to Australian rules football, rugby league or rugby union. In British English, football is most commonly used to refer to association football, while in North American English football is used to refer to gridironPants in Australian English most commonly refers to British English trousers, but in British English refers to Australian English underpantsNursery in Australian English generally refers to a plant nursery, whereas in British English and American English it also often refers to a child care or daycare for pre-school age childrenPaddock in Australian English refers to an open field or meadow whereas in American and British English it refers to a small agricultural enclosurePremier in Australian English refers specifically to the head of government of an Australian state, whereas in British English it is used interchangeably with Prime MinisterPublic school in Australian English refers to a state school. Australian and American English use private school to mean a non-government or independent school, in contrast with British English which uses public school to refer to the same thingPudding in Australian English refers to a particular sweet dessert dish, while in British English it often refers to dessert in generalThongs in Australian English refer to British and American English flip-flop, whereas in both American and British English it refers to Australian English G-string Vest in Australian English refers to a padded upper garment or British English waistcoat but in British English refers to Australian English ''singlet''Idioms taking different forms in Australian English
In addition to the large number of uniquely Australian idioms in common use, there are instances of idioms taking different forms in Australian English than in other varieties, for instance:A drop in the ocean as opposed to AmE a drop in the bucketA way to go as opposed to AmE a ways to goHome away from home as opposed to BrE home from homeTake with a grain of salt as opposed to BrE take with a pinch of saltTouch wood as opposed to AmE knock on woodWouldn't touch with a ten-foot pole as opposed to BrE ''wouldn't touch with a barge pole''British and American English terms not commonly used in Australian English
There are extensive terms used in other varieties of English which are not widely used in Australian English. These terms usually do not result in Australian English speakers failing to comprehend speakers of other varieties of English, as Australian English speakers will often be familiar with such terms through exposure to media or may ascertain the meaning using context.Non-exhaustive selections of British English and American English terms not commonly used in Australian English together with their definitions or Australian English equivalents are found in the collapsible table below:
British English terms not widely used in Australian EnglishAllotment : A community garden not connected to a dwellingArtic or articulated lorry : Australian English semi-trailerAubergine : Australian English eggplantBank holiday: Australian English public holidayBarmy: Crazy, mad or insane.Bedsit: Australian English studio Belisha beacon: A flashing light atop a pole used to mark a pedestrian crossingBin lorry: Australian English: rubbish truck or garbage truckBobby: A police officer, particularly one of lower rankCagoule: A lightweight raincoat or windsheeterCandy floss : Australian English fairy flossCash machine: Australian English automatic teller machineChav: Lower socio-economic person comparable to Australian English boganChild-minder: Australian English babysitterChivvy: To hurry along. Australian English nagChrimbo: Abbreviation for Christmas comparable to Australian English ChrissyChuffed: To be proud Cleg : Australian English horseflyClingfilm: A plastic wrap used in food preparation. Australian English Glad wrap/cling wrapCommunity payback: Australian English community serviceComprehensive school: Australian English state school or public schoolCooker: A kitchen appliance. Australian English stove and/or ovenCoppice: An area of cleared woodlandCouncil housing: Australian English public housingCounterpane: A bed covering. Australian English bedspreadCourgette: A vegetable. Australian English zucchiniCreche: Australian English child care centre Crisps: Australian English (potato) chipsCurrent account: Australian English transaction accountDell: A small secluded hollow or valleyDo: Australian English party or social gatheringDoddle: An easy taskDoss : To spend time idlyDrawing pin: Australian English thumb tackDungarees: Australian English overallsDustbin: Australian English garbage bin/rubbish binDustcart: Australian English garbage truck/rubbish truckDuvet: Australian English doonaElastoplast or plaster: An adhesive used to cover small wounds. Australian English band-aidElectrical lead: Australian English electrical cordEstate car: Australian English station wagonFairy cake: Australian English cupcakeFather Christmas: Australian English Santa ClausFen: A low and frequently flooded area of land, similar to Australian English swampFree phone: Australian English toll-freeGammon: Meat from the hind leg of pork. Australian English makes no distinction between gammon and hamGit: A foolish person. Equivalent to idiot or moronGoose pimples: Australian English goose bumpsHacked off: To be irritated or upset, often with a personHairgrip: Australian English hairpin or bobbypinHalf-term: Australian English school holidayHaulier: Australian English haulerHeath: An area of dry grass or shrubs, similar to Australian English shrublandHoover : Australian English to vacuumHorsebox: Australian English horse floatIce lolly: Australian English ice block or icy poleJuicy bits: Small pieces of fruit residue found in fruit juice. Australian English pulpKip: To sleepKitchen roll: Australian English paper towelLandslip: Australian English landslideLavatory: Australian English toilet Lido: A public swimming poolLorry: Australian English truckLoudhailer: Australian English megaphoneMackintosh or mac: Australian English raincoatMangetout: Australian English snow peaMarrow: Australian English squashMinidish: A satellite dish for domestic useMoggie: A domestic short-haired catMoor: A low area prone to flooding, similar to Australian English swamplandNettled: Irritated Nosh: A meal or spread of foodOff-licence: Australian English bottle shop/Bottle-oPak choi: Australian English bok choyPavement: Australian English footpathPelican crossing: Australian English pedestrian crossing or zebra crossingPeaky: Unwell or sickly Pepper : Australian English capsicumPeople carrier : Australian English people moverPikey: An itinerant person. Similar to Australian English trampPillar box: Australian English post boxPillock: A mildly offensive term for a foolish or obnoxious person, similar to idiot or moron. Also refers to male genitaliaPlimsoll : Australian English sandshoePneumatic drill: Australian English jackhammerPolo neck : Australian English skivvyPoorly: Unwell or sickPress-up : Australian English push-upPushchair: A wheeled cart for pushing a baby. Australian English stroller or pramPusher: A wheeled cart for pushing a baby. Australian English stroller or pramRodgering: A mildly offensive term for sexual intercourse, similar to Australian English rootingSaloon : Australian English sedanScratchings : Solid material left after rendering animal fat. Australian English cracklingSellotape: Australian English sticky tapeShan't: Australian English will notSkive : To play truant, particularly from an educational institution. Australian English to wagSleeping policeman: Australian English speed hump or speed bumpSnog : To kiss passionately, equivalent to Australian English pashSod: A mildly offensive term for an unpleasant personSpinney: A small area of trees and bushesStrimmer: Australian English whipper snipper or line trimmerSwan : To move from one plact to another ostentatiouslySweets: Australian English lolliesTailback: A long queue of stationary or slow-moving trafficTangerine: Australian English mandarinTat : Cheap, tasteless goodsTipp-Ex: Australian English white out or liquid paperTrainers: Athletic footwear. Australian English runners or sneakersTurning : Where one road branches from another. Australian English turnUtility room: A room containing washing or other home appliances, similar to Australian English laundryValue-added tax : Australian English goods and services tax (GST)Wellington boots: Australian English gumbootsWhite spirit: Australian English turpentine
American English terms not widely used in Australian EnglishAcclimate: Australian English acclimatiseAirplane: Australian English aeroplaneAluminum: Australian English aluminiumBaby carriage: Australian English stroller or pramBangs: A hairstyle. Australian English fringeBaseboard : Australian English skirting boardBayou: Australian English swamp/''billabongBell pepper: Australian English capsicumBellhop: Australian English hotel porterBeltway: Australian English ring roadBoondocks: An isolated, rural area. Australian English the sticks or Woop Woop or Beyond the black stumpBroil : Australian English grillBullhorn: Australian English megaphoneBurglarize: Australian English burgleBusboy: A subclass of waiterCandy: Australian English lolliesCellular phone: Australian English mobile phoneCilantro: Australian English corianderComforter: Australian English doonaCondominium: Australian English apartmentCounter-clockwise: Australian English anticlockwiseCoveralls: Australian English overallsCrapshoot: A risky ventureDiaper: Australian English nappyDowntown: Australian English central business districtDrapes: Australian English curtainsDrugstore: Australian English pharmacy or chemistDrywall: Australian English plasterboardDumpster: Australian English skip binFall : Australian English autumnFanny pack: Australian English bum bagFaucet: Australian English tapFlashlight: Australian English torchFreshman: A first year student at a highschool or universityFrosting : Australian English icingGasoline: Australian English petrolGas pedal: Australian English acceleratorGas Station: Australian English service station or petrol stationGlove compartment: Australian English gloveboxGolden raisin: Australian English sultanaGrifter: Australian English con artistGround beef: Australian English minced beef or minceHood : Australian English bonnetHot tub: Australian English spa or spa bathJell-o: Australian English jellyLadybug: Australian English ladybirdMail-man: Australian English postman or postieMass transit: Australian English public transportMath: Australian English mathsMineral spirits: Australian English turpentineNightstand: Australian English bedside tableOut-of-state: Australian English interstatePacifier: Australian English dummyParking lot: Australian English car parkPenitentiary: Australian English prison or jailPeriod : Australian English full stopPlay hooky : To play truant from an educational institution. Equivalent to Australian English wagPopsicle: Australian English ice block or icy poleRailroad: Australian English railwayRailroad ties: Australian English Railway sleepersRappel: Australian English abseilRealtor: Australian English real estate agentRoot : To enthusiastically support a sporting team. Equivalent to Australian English barrackRow house: Australian English terrace houseSales tax: Australian English goods and services tax (GST)Saran wrap: Australian English plastic wrap or cling wrapScad: Australian English a large quantityScallion: Australian English spring onionSharpie : Australian English permanent marker or texta or felt penShopping cart: Australian English shopping trolleySidewalk: Australian English footpathSilverware or flatware: Australian English cutlerySoda pop: Australian English soft drinkStreetcar: Australian English tramSweater: Australian English jumperSweatpants: Australian English tracksuit pants/trackiesTailpipe: Australian English exhaust pipeTakeout: Australian English takeawayTrash can: Australian English garbage bin or rubbish binTrunk : Australian English bootTurn signal: Australian English indicatorTurtleneck: Australian English skivvyUpscale and downscale: Australian English upmarket and downmarketVacation: Australian English holidayWindshield: Australian English windscreen''
Influence on other languages and dialects
Australian English has influenced several other varieties of English, particularly in Oceania, and other languages spoken in Australia and Oceania.New Caledonia
Australian English has been a heavy source of vocabulary for both English and French in New Caledonia, with a large amount of Australianised Anglicisms being present in New Caledonian speech. For example, the Australian agricultural terms paddock, run, station, stock, stockman, stockwhip and stockyard are all used in New Caledonia.Grammar
The general rules which apply to Australian English are described at English grammar. Grammatical differences between varieties of English are minor relative to differences in phonology and vocabulary and do not generally affect intelligibility. Examples of grammatical differences between Australian English and other varieties include:- Collective nouns are generally singular in construction, e.g., the government was unable to decide as opposed to the government were unable to decide or the group was leaving as opposed to the group were leaving. This is in common with American English.
- Australian English has an extreme distaste for the modal verbs shall, shan't and ought, which are encountered in British English. However, shall is found in the Australian Constitution, Acts of Parliament, and other formal or legal documents such as contracts, and ought sees use in some academic contexts.
- Using should with the same meaning as would, e.g. I should like to see you, encountered in British English, is almost never encountered in Australian English and is often contracted to I'd.
- River follows the name of the river in question, e.g., Brisbane River, rather than the British convention of coming before the name, e.g., River Thames. This is also the case in North American and New Zealand English. In South Australian English however, the reverse applies when referring to the following three rivers: Murray, Darling and Torrens. The Derwent in Tasmania also follows this convention.
- While prepositions before days may be omitted in American English, i.e., She resigned Thursday, they are retained in Australian English: She resigned on Thursday. This is shared with British English.
- The institutional nouns hospital and university do not take the definite article: She's in hospital, He's at university. This is in contrast to American English where the is required: In the hospital, At the university.
- On the weekend is used in favour of the British at the weekend which is not encountered in Australian English.
- Ranges of dates use to, i.e., Monday to Friday, rather than Monday through Friday. This is shared with British English and is in contrast to American English.
- When speaking or writing out numbers, and is always inserted before the tens, i.e., one hundred and sixty-two rather than one hundred sixty-two. This is in contrast to American English, where the insertion of and is acceptable but nonetheless either casual or informal.
- The preposition to in write to is always retained, as opposed to American usage where it may be dropped.
- Australian English does not share the British usage of read to mean "study". Therefore, it may be said that "He studies medicine" but not that "He reads medicine".
- When referring to time, Australians will refer to 10:30 as half past ten and do not use the British half ten. Similarly, a quarter to ten is used for 9:45 rather than quarter of ten, which is sometimes found in American English.
- Australian English does not share the British English meaning of sat to include sitting or seated. Therefore, uses such as I've been sat here for an hour are not encountered in Australian English.
- To have a shower or have a bath are the most common usages in Australian English, in contrast to American English which uses take a shower and take a bath.
- The past participle of saw is sawn in Australian English, in contrast to the American English sawed.
- The verb visit is transitive in Australian English. Where the object is a person or people, American English also uses visit with, which is not found in Australian English.
- An outdoor event which is cancelled due to inclement weather is rained out in Australian English. This is in contrast to British English where it is said to be rained off.
- In informal speech, sentence-final but may be used, e.g. "I don't want to go but" in place of "But I don't want to go". This is also found in Scottish English.
- In informal speech, the discourse markers yeah no and no yeah may be used to mean "no" and "yes" respectively. Extended discourse markers of this nature are sometimes used for comedic effect, but the meaning is generally found in the final affirmative/negative.
Spelling and style
As in all English-speaking countries, there is no central authority that prescribes official usage with respect to matters of spelling, grammar, punctuation or style.Spelling
There are several dictionaries of Australian English which adopt a descriptive approach. The Macquarie Dictionary and the Australian Oxford Dictionary are most commonly used by universities, governments and courts as the standard for Australian English spelling.Australian spelling is significantly closer to British than American spelling, as it did not adopt the systematic reforms promulgated in Noah Webster's 1828 Dictionary. Notwithstanding, the Macquarie Dictionary often lists most American spellings as acceptable secondary variants.
The minor systematic differences which occur between Australian and American spelling are summarised below:
- French-derived words which in American English end with or, such as color, honor, behavior and labor, are spelt with our in Australian English: colour, honour, behaviour and labour. Exceptions are the Australian Labor Party and some placenames which use harbor, notably Victor Harbor.
- Words which in American English end with ize, such as realize, recognize and apologize are spelt with ise in Australian English: realise, recognise and apologise. The British Oxford spelling, which uses the ize endings, remains a minority variant. The Macquarie Dictionary says that the -ise form as opposed to -ize sits at 3:1. The sole exception to this is capsize, which is used in all varieties.
- Words which in American English end with yze, such as analyze, paralyze and catalyze are spelt with yse in Australian English: analyse, paralyse and catalyse.
- French-derived words which in American English end with er, such as fiber, center and meter are spelt with re in Australian English: fibre, centre and metre.
- Words which end in American English end with log, such as catalog, dialog and monolog are usually spelt with logue in Australian English: catalogue, dialogue and monologue; however, the Macquarie Dictionary lists the log spelling as the preferred variant for analog.
- A double-consonant l is retained in Australian English when adding suffixes to words ending in l where the consonant is unstressed, contrary to American English. Therefore, Australian English favours cancelled, counsellor and travelling over American English canceled, counselor and traveling.
- Where American English uses a double-consonant ll in the words skillful, willful, enroll, distill, enthrall, fulfill and installment, Australian English uses a single consonant: skilful, wilful, enrol, distil, enthral, fulfil and instalment. However, the Macquarie Dictionary has noted a growing tendency to use the double consonant.
- The American English defense and offense are spelt defence and offence in Australian English.
- In contrast with American English, which uses practice and license for both nouns and verbs, practice and licence are nouns while practise and license are verbs in Australian English.
- Words with ae and oe are often maintained in words such as oestrogen and paedophilia, in contrast to the American English practice of using e' alone. The Macquarie Dictionary has noted a shift within Australian English towards using e alone, and now lists some words such as encyclopedia, fetus, eon or he'matite with the e spelling as the preferred variant and hence Australian English varies by word when it comes to these sets of words.
- Words often ending in eable in British English end in able in Australian English. Therefore, Australian English favours livable over liveable, sizable over sizeable, movable over moveable, etc., although both variants are acceptable.
- Words often ending in eing in British English end in ing in Australian English. Therefore, Australian English favours aging over ageing, or routing over routeing, etc., although both variants are acceptable.
- Words often ending in mme in British English end in m in Australian English. Therefore, Australian English favours program over programme and aerogram over aerogramme, although both variants are acceptable. Similar to Canada, New Zealand and the United States, gram is the only spelling.
There is variation between and within varieties of English in the treatment of -t and -ed endings for past tense verbs. The Macquarie Dictionary does not favour either, but it suggests that leaped, leaned or learned are more common but spelt and burn't are more common.
Different spellings have existed throughout Australia's history. What are today regarded as American spellings were popular in Australia throughout the late 19th and early 20th centuries, with the Victorian Department of Education endorsing them into the 1970s and The Age newspaper until the 1990s. This influence can be seen in the spelling of the Australian Labor Party and also in some place names such as Victor Harbor. The Concise Oxford English Dictionary has been credited with re-establishing the dominance of the British spellings in the 1920s and 1930s. For a short time during the late 20th century, Harry Lindgren's 1969 spelling reform proposal gained some support in Australia and was adopted by the Australian Teachers' Federation and minister Doug Everingham in personal correspondence.
Punctuation and style
Prominent style guides for the Government of Australia is the Australian Government Style Manual. It is a comprehensive guide that includes usage guides on grammar, punctuation, and conventions for government writers and editors.To indicate speech, both single and double inverted comma quotation marks are used. Generally, double quotation marks are preferred for use in the first instance, with single quotation marks used for quotes within quotes. However, the opposite is true in the government and corporate sectors, where double quotation marks are reserved for quotes within quotes. The punctuation mark used to end a sentence is called a full stop; a period usually refers to menstruation or an interval of time.
The DD/MM/YYYY date format is followed and the 12-hour clock is generally used in everyday life.
The country has used the metric system since the 1970s, though the imperial system is still sometimes used informally, especially among older Australians, in idioms and in reference to a person's height.
In betting, decimal odds are used in preference to fractional odds, as used in the United Kingdom, or moneyline odds in the United States.