Muhammad al-Mahdi
Muhammad al-Mahdi is believed by the Twelver Shia to be the last of the Twelve Imams and the eschatological Mahdi, who will emerge in the end of time to establish peace and justice and redeem Islam.
Hasan al-Askari, the eleventh Imam, died in AH 260, possibly poisoned by the Abbasids. Immediately after his death, his main representative, Uthman ibn Sa'id al-Asadi, claimed that the eleventh Imam had an infant son named Muhammad, who was kept hidden from the public out of fear of Abbasid persecution. Uthman also claimed to represent Muhammad, who had entered a state of occultation. Other local representatives of al-Askari largely supported these assertions, while the Shia community fragmented into several sects over al-Askari's succession. All these sects, however, are said to have disappeared after a few decades except for the Twelvers, who accept the son of al-Askari as the twelfth and final Imam in Shia Islam, remaining in a state of occultation.
Uthman was followed by three more agents, collectively known as the Four Deputies, who were regarded by the Twelver community as representatives of Muhammad al-Mahdi. This period, later termed the Minor Occultation, ended after about seventy years with the death of the fourth agent, Abu al-Hasan Ali ibn Muhammad al-Samarri. He is said to have received the final letter of Muhammad al-Mahdi shortly before his death. The letter predicted the death of Abu al-Hasan in six days and announced the beginning of the complete occultation, later called the Major Occultation, which continues to this day. The letter, ascribed to Muhammad al-Mahdi, added that the complete occultation would continue until God granted him permission to manifest himself again in a time when Earth would be filled with tyranny.
The Twelver theory of occultation crystallized in the first half of the fourth century AH based on rational and textual arguments. This theory, for instance, sets forth that the life of Muhammad al-Mahdi has been miraculously prolonged, arguing that the earth cannot be void of the Imam as the highest proof of God. In the absence of the Hidden Imam, the leadership vacuum in the Twelver community was gradually filled by faqīh "jurists". It is popularly held that the Hidden Imam occasionally appears to the pious. The accounts of these encounters are numerous and widespread among the Twelvers.
Titles
Abu al-Qasim Muhammad ibn Hasan al-Askari, the eschatological savior in Twelver Islam, is known by many titles, including al-Mahdi, al-Qa'im, al-Montazar, Saheb al-Zaman, al-Gha'ib, al-Hojja/Hojjat Allah, Sahib al-Amr, Sahib al-Haqq, Baqiyat Allah.The title al-Qa'im signifies the rise against tyranny, though a hadith from the sixth Shia Imam, Ja'far al-Sadiq, connects this title to the rise of al-Qa'im after his death. As a hadith, this report is not viewed as reliable by experts, writes the Shia Mohammad-Baqer Majlesi, especially because it contradicts the Twelver belief that the earth cannot be void of Imam at any time, as the on the earth. Majlesi also suggests that death might be meant figuratively in this hadith, referring to the forgotten memory of al-Qa'im after his long occultation.
Abdulaziz Sachedina notes that the titles Qa'im Al Muhammad and Sahib al-Amr have more of a political emphasis than the eschatological title al-Mahdi. The title al-Hujja, on the other hand, highlights the religious function of the savior. Indeed, every Shia Imam is viewed as, the proof of God, through whom the inner meanings of the Quran become accessible after the death of the prophet. This title is more pronounced for the twelfth Imam, however, possibly because of a related hadith from the tenth Imam, Ali al-Hadi.
Historical background
Until their deaths, the tenth and eleventh Shia Imams were held under close surveillance in the garrison town of Samarra by the Abbasids, who are often responsible in Shia sources for poisoning the two Imams. The two Imams witnessed the deterioration of the Abbasid caliphate, as the imperial authority rapidly transitioned into the hands of the Turks, particularly after al-Mutawakkil.Contemporary to the tenth Imam, Caliph al-Mutawakkil violently prosecuted the Shia, partly due to the renewed Zaydi opposition. The restrictive policies of al-Mutawakkil towards the tenth Imam were later adopted by his son, al-Mu'tamid, who is reported to have kept the eleventh Imam under house arrest without any visitors. Instead, al-Askari is known to have mainly communicated with his followers through a network of representatives. Among them was Uthman ibn Sa'id al-Asadi, who is said to have disguised himself as a seller of cooking fat to avoid the Abbasid agents, hence his nickname al-Samman.
Muhammad Husayn Tabatabai suggests that these restrictions were placed on al-Askari because the caliphate had come to know about traditions among the Shia elite, predicting that the eleventh Imam would father the eschatological Mahdi.
Succession to al-Askari
died in 260 without an obvious heir. The death of the eleventh Imam divided his followers into several sects and created widespread confusion, particularly in Iraq. Immediately after the death of al-Askari, his main agent, Uthman ibn Sa'id al-Asadi, claimed that the Imam had an infant son, named Muhammad, who was kept hidden from the public out of fear of Abbasid persecution. As the closest associate of al-Askari, this assertion by Uthman was largely supported by other representatives of al-Askari. Those who accepted the imamate of this Muhammad later formed the Twelvers.Some others held that the imamate ceased with al-Askari and the Waqifites maintained that the eleventh Imam would later reemerge as the eschatological Mahdi. Others concluded that Muhammad ibn Ali al-Hadi, a deceased brother of al-Askari, must have been the true Imam. Yet others accepted the imamate of Ja'far al-Zaki, another brother of al-Askari. Some believed that the twelfth Imam would be born in the end of time to a descendant of al-Askari, and some left the Shia community.
All these sects, however, are said to have disappeared within a hundred years except the group that went on to become the Twelver Shia.
Birth and early life of al-Mahdi
When al-Askari died without leaving an obvious heir, the traditions and predictions attributed to earlier Imams were largely the basis for the existence of the son of al-Askari as the twelfth Imam; see [|Twelver doctrine of occultation].As for the details of his birth, Twelver sources report that the son of al-Askari was born around 255. He was named Abu al-Qasim Muhammad, the same name and kunya | as the Islamic prophet, though he is more commonly known as Muhammad al-Mahdi. His birthdate is given differently, but most sources seem to agree on 15 Sha'ban, which is celebrated by the Shia for this occasion. The Twelver accounts describe that, except for a few trusted associates, the existence of al-Mahdi was kept secret since the Abbasids sought to eliminate the son of al-Askari, whom persistent rumors described as a savior. Hussain writes that the infant must have been sent to Medina, where al-Askari's mother lived.
The birth of al-Mahdi is often compared in Twelver sources to the birth of Moses in the Quran, who was miraculously saved from the pharaoh. As a child Imam, al-Mahdi is also often compared to Jesus, since both are viewed as the proof of God and both spoke with the authority of an adult while still a child.
Al-Mahdi is said to have been born to Narjis, a slave-girl whose name is given by various sources as Sawsan, Rayhana, Sayqal, and Maryam. The first three are names of flowers and were likely given to her by her owner in keeping with the practice of the day. Her origin is recorded as the Byzantine Empire or Nubia, and some accounts state that she was bought providentially by an agent of al-Hadi, who recognized by clairvoyance in her the future mother of al-Mahdi. In the same vein, the detailed accounts of Mohammad-Baqer Majlesi and Shaykh Tusi describe Narjis as a captured granddaughter of the Byzantine emperor and a pious woman who learned about her future union with al-Askari in a dream, though these accounts have been described as hagiographic. Possibly the correct account is given by Al-Shaykh Al-Mufid, who writes that Narjis was a slave girl born and raised in the house of Hakima Khatun, daughter of Muhammad al-Jawad and paternal aunt of al-Askari.
Abbasid reaction
The death of al-Askari in 260 followed a brief illness, during which the Abbasid al-Mu'tamid sent his doctors and servants to attend the Imam. Considering that al-Askari did not have an obvious heir, it has been suggested that the caliph intended to closely monitor al-Askari from within his residence. After the death of al-Askari, there are reports that his residence was searched and the women were examined for pregnancy, possibly in the hope of finding his heir. A female servant of al-Askari was held for a while, perhaps due to false rumors of her pregnancy designed to distract the Abbasids in their search.Al-Askari left his estate to his mother, Hadith, to the exclusion of his brother, Ja'far ibn Ali al-Hadi, who had earlier unsuccessfully laid a claim to the imamate after the death of their father, al-Hadi. Ja'far repeated his claims to the imamate after the death of al-Askari, which this time found a following in the form of the now-extinct Ja'fariyya and Fathite sects. He also contested al-Askari's will and raised the case with the authorities. Al-Askari was apparently childless, and Hadith was thus regarded as the sole inheritor in Shia law. The caliph, however, ruled the inheritance to be divided between Hadith and Ja'far.
Minor Occultation (874–941)
Immediately after the death of al-Askari in 260, Uthman ibn Sa'id al-Asadi claimed that al-Askari had a young son, named Muhammad, who had entered a state of occultation due to the Abbasid threat to his life. As the special representative of al-Askari, Uthman also claimed that he had been appointed to represent the son of the eleventh Imam. A Shia tradition attributed to the sixth Imam, Ja'far al-Sadiq, states that this threat was specific to Muhammad al-Mahdi, who was expected to rise, unlike his predecessors who practiced religious dissimulation and were politically quiescent.Twelver sources detail that al-Mahdi made his only public appearance to lead the funeral prayer for his father instead of his uncle, Ja'far al-Zaki. It is also said that the occultation took place in the family home in Samarra, where currently a mosque stands, under which there is a cellar that hides a well. Into this well, al-Mahdi is said to have disappeared.
In his new capacity as the caretaker of the office of imamate, Uthman received petitions and made available their responses, sometimes in writing. As the closest associate of al-Askari, most of al-Askari's local representatives continued to support Uthman. However, there might have been doubts among the Shia about his authority to collect and manage the religious funds.
Uthman later introduced his son, Abu Jafar Muhammad ibn Uthman, as the next representative of al-Mahdi. Abu Ja'far, who served for some forty years, has been credited with the unification of the mainstream Shia behind the son of al-Askari as the twelfth Imam in concealment. In turn, as his replacement, Abu Ja'far nominated Abu al-Qasim al-Husayn ibn Ruh al-Nawbakhti, who is said to have been a well-respected figure in the Abbasid court. Under Abu al-Qasim, it is reported that the communications with the Hidden Imam resumed after a lapse of about twenty-five years.
This period, later termed the Minor Occultation, ended after about seventy years with the death of the fourth agent, Abu al-Hasan Ali ibn Muhammad al-Samarri, who is said to have received a letter from al-Mahdi shortly before his death. The letter predicted the death of Abu al-Hasan in six days and announced the beginning of the complete occultation, later called the Major Occultation. The letter, ascribed to al-Mahdi, added that the complete occultation would continue until God granted him permission to manifest himself again in a time when the earth would be filled with tyranny. The letter emphasized that anyone claiming to be the deputy of the Imam henceforth had to be considered an imposter. This and similar letters to the four agents and other Shia figures are said to have had the same handwriting, suggesting that they were written by the Hidden Imam.