Taifa of Granada
The Taifa of Granada or Zirid Kingdom of Granada was a Muslim kingdom that was formed in al-Andalus in 1013 following the deposition of Umayyad Caliph Hisham II in 1009. The kingdom was centered on Granada, its capital, and it also extended its control to Málaga for a period. Four kings succeeded each other during its nearly 80 years of existence, all of them belonging to an offshoot of the Zirid dynasty of North Africa, a Sanhaja Berber clan. The Taifa of Granada was considered to be the wealthiest out of all of the taifa kingdoms. It was eventually conquered by the Almoravids in 1090, putting an end to Zirid rule in Granada.
History
Origins and establishment
The Zirids were a Sanhaja Berber clan from the central Maghreb, who served the Fatimid Caliphate and created a dynasty that thereafter ruled parts of North Africa on their behalf. The dynasty was founded by Ziri ibn Manad, who was succeeded by his son Buluggin after 971, ruling from Kairouan in Ifriqiya. In 999, many of Buluggin's brothers, including Zawi ibn Ziri, rebelled against his grandson, Badis ibn al-Mansur, due to their exclusion from power by Buluggin and his descendants. The rebels, based in 'Ashir, were defeated in battle and most of the brothers were killed except for Zawi. Zawi led the remaining rebels westwards and sought new opportunity in al-Andalus under the Umayyad Caliphs of Córdoba, the former enemies of the Fatimids and Zirids. The hajib of Caliph Hisham II and de facto ruler of the Caliphate of Córdoba at the time, Ibn Abi ʿAmir al-Mansur, initially refused to allow Zawi's immigration to al-Andalus, believing his reputation as a troublemaker. However, his son and successor, 'Abd al-Malik al-Muẓaffar, seeking able military commanders, granted Zawi and his followers permission to come to Córdoba, where they subsequently became an important part of al-Muzaffar's army. The new Zirid arrivals were probably also accompanied by their families from North Africa.The Caliphate of Córdoba fragmented after 1008 during a period known as the fitna of al-Andalus. Zawi initially played a role, along with other Berber factions, in the siege of Córdoba between 1010 and 1013. By the end of the siege they succeeded in installing their own puppet caliph in Córdoba, Sulayman al-Musta'in, but by this point Zawi and other factions probably understood that the dominance of Córdoba was at an end and they sought political fortunes elsewhere in al-Andalus. The new caliph granted Zawi and his faction the kūra of Ilbira to settle in 1013. According to the narrative provided by the later memoirs of Abdallah ibn Buluggin, the Zirids settled there at the request of the local population who sought protection from outside attackers but were unable to organize themselves. Historian Hugh Kennedy notes that while Abdallah's memoirs seek to legitimize Zirid rule, this narrative is plausible when considering the situation of al-Andalus at the time and the similar stories of other Andalusi cities inviting new rulers to protect them during the Taifas period. Soon after settling in the area, Zawi moved his capital from Madinat Ilbira to the more defensible Granada nearby. Granada had been hitherto a small settlement on the right bank of the Darro river, and Zawi's move to this location resulted in the foundation of a new city and an independent polity that lasted 77 years.
In 1018, the Umayyad pretender Abd al-Rahman IV, known as al-Murtaḍā, laid siege to Granada but his forces were decisively defeated by the Zirids. Soon after, in 1019 or 1020, Zawi left al-Andalus for North Africa, resuming his ambitions within the Zirid state there, which was under the rule of the young al-Muizz ibn Badis but embroiled in an internal struggle with Hammad ibn Buluggin, a family member who had declared his independence from the Zirids of Kairouan in 1015 and founded the Hammadid dynasty. Zawi's fate is not known for certain: according to Ibn Hayyan he died of the plague years later, while Abdallah ibn Buluggin's memoirs claim he was poisoned not long after arriving in North Africa, but neither source gives the date of his death.
Expansion and apogee
In Granada, Zawi's nephew Habbus ibn Maksan was invited by the qadi of the city, Abu 'Abdallah ibn Abi Zamanin, to take control of the new kingdom instead of one of Zawi's sons. Under the reign of Habbus, the Taifa of Granada was consolidated and evolved into one of the most important political forces of al-Andalus. Habbus organised the military by dividing his kingdom into smaller provinces, each of which was charged with recruiting a jund militia which contributed to the Zirid army. He is also credited with building the Zirid citadel in Granada, located in what is now the Albaicín neighbourhood.Habbus invaded Cabra and Jaén around 1028–1029, expanding his territory northwards, while also imposing his influence on the Taifa of Almeria to the east. Granada's greatest rival was the Taifa of Seville, but at this early stage, the balance of power was in favour of the Zirids, who conducted several military campaigns to the west. In one such campaign, Habus assembled a coalition of armies from Granada, Almeria, and the Zanata principality of Ecija. They attacked Seville directly on or around 30 August 1036, occupying the nearby towns of Aznalcazar and Tocina and burning down the Triana neighbourhood of the city. By the end of his reign, Habbus had thus secured a kingdom occupying the former provinces of Ilbira, Jaén, and Cabra.
Habbus was succeeded by his son, Badis Ibn Habbus, but his reign started with succession troubles. Various factions opposed him and supported either his cousin, Yaddayr ibn Hubasa, or his youngest brother, Buluggin. He managed to foil a coup attempt thanks to the warnings of his allies. Zuhayr al-'Amiri, the ruler of Almeria, attempted to exploit these internal dissensions in 1038 by refusing to renew the alliance he had concluded with Habbus and by invading Granada's territory. He managed to advance as far as al-Funt, a farmstead north of Granada, but here he was met and defeated by an army from Granada. The Zirids annexed much of his former territory and turned Almeria into a vassal state for several years. In 1039, the Zirids also defeated the Abbadids of Seville in battle near Écija, in turn gaining some territory to the west. The Zirids formally recognized as caliphs the Hammudids, a dynasty descended from Sulayman al-Musta'in and the rulers of the Taifa of Málaga. Badis nonetheless annexed Málaga in 1056 after Hammudid rule collapsed there, appointing his own son, Buluggin Sayf ad-Dawla, as governor. The reign of Badis thus became the apogee of Taifa Granada's political and economic power.
Under the kings Habbus and Badis, the Jewish administrator known as Isma'il ibn Nagrilla or Samuel ha-Nagid progressively became the most powerful political figure in the state. Isma'il was a highly educated member of the former elites of Cordoba who had fled that city after the outbreak of the fitna. He eventually found his way to Granada, where Habbus appointed him his secretary in 1020 and entrusted him with many important responsibilities, including tax collection. He was one of the allies who warned Badis of the coup attempt against him at the start of his reign and he thus became the king's most trusted advisor. Under Badis, Isma'il even took charge of the army.
After Isma'il's death in 1056, his son Yusuf took over his position but lacked his father's political skill and prudence, quickly making enemies among other factions within the state while the king, Badis, remained ineffective. When Badis' elder son Buluggin was killed by poison in Yusuf's palace, Yusuf was widely suspected of plotting the murder. In 1066, Yusuf secretly invited al-Mu'tasim, the ruler of the neighbouring Taifa kingdom of Almería, to take control of the city and install him as client king in place of the Zirids. Yusuf's plan was to open the gates of the city when al-Mu'tasim's army arrived, but the plan failed when al-Mu'tasim grew uncertain and decided to turn back his army at the last moment. When Yusuf's plot was subsequently revealed, it provoked a violent retaliation from other factions and from the general population still loyal to the Zirids, resulting in the 1066 Granada massacre, in which Yusuf and his allies were killed and deadly retaliations were extended against the city's Jewish population.
Decline and fall
After these events, the kingdom weakened, exacerbated by frequent wars with the Taifa of Seville and other neighbours. When Badis died in 1073, his grandson, 'Abdallah ibn Buluggin, was chosen by an assembly of Sanhaja dynastic officials and shaykhs to be his successor, despite 'Abdallah being between 7 and 9 years of age. A regent named Simaja was appointed to the young king, the only vizier of Berber origin to serve the Zirid kings of Granada. 'Abdallah's older brother Tamim, the governor of Malaga, declared himself independent. In 1081–1082 Tamim even attacked his brother's territory by land and sea, but he was eventually defeated and then reconciled with his brother.Around this time, the Taifa kingdoms of al-Andalus, including Granada, also became increasingly dependent on the Christian kings of the northern Iberian Peninsula for military aid, particularly the king of Castile and Léon, Alfonso VI. One of Alfonso's main strategies, as described in Abdallah ibn Buluggin's memoirs, was to goad both Seville and Granada into attacking and weakening each other, all while forcing both sides to pay parias to him. The Zirids were defeated in the Battle of Cabra in 1079 against the forces of Seville. Both sides were aided by Castilian knights, with the Castilian contingent of Seville being led by Rodrigo Diaz de Vivar, later known as El Cid. The constant warfare also led to raised taxes, which added to general discontent. There were frequent rebellions, even by high-ranking officials and governors. The ruler of Almeria, al-Mu'tasim, exploited Granada's weakness again by reclaiming Baeza with the aid of its Zirid governor, Ibn Malhan.
The kingdom's affairs worsened in the 1080s, as Alfonso's forces began encroaching into al-Andalus and the Berber Almoravids of North Africa began to intervene in the Iberian Peninsula as a result. In 1089, during the second Almoravid expedition to the peninsula, 'Abdallah was coerced into aiding the unsuccessful Almoravid siege of Aledo. After this, he tried to play both sides: keeping up the payments to Alfonso VI while also keeping up relations with the Almoravids. Finally, Granada was captured by the Almoravids in September 1090, putting an end to the independent kingdom. 'Abdallah, understanding the military superiority of the Almoravids, surrendered the city to them without a fight. The Almoravids detained him and confiscated all his properties, but he was allowed to retire in exile in Aghmat, where he wrote a political memoir about his reign and his dynasty, called the Tibyān, which has provided modern historians with a great deal of information about this period.