Yellow Turban Rebellion
The Yellow Turban Rebellion, alternatively translated as the Yellow Scarves Rebellion, was a peasant revolt during the late Eastern Han dynasty of ancient China. The uprising broke out in 184 AD, during the reign of Emperor Ling. Although the main rebellion was suppressed by 185 AD, it took 21 years to fully subdue resisting areas and emerging rebellions, which was only achieved in 205 AD. The weakening of the imperial court and the rising political influence of ultra-autonomous regional military-governors, who helped suppress the rebellion, eventually led to rampant warlord dominance and the resultant Three Kingdoms period.
The rebellion, which took its name from the colour of the rebels' headwear marked an important point in the history of Taoism due to the rebel leaders' association with the then secret Taoist societies. The revolt was also used as the opening event in the 14th-century historical novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms.
Background
By 184 AD, the Han Dynasty's central government was weakened by court eunuchs abusing their power over the emperor to enrich themselves. Twelve of the most powerful eunuchs were referred to as the Ten Attendants with Emperor Ling once claiming that "Regular Attendant Zhang Rang is my father and Regular Attendant Zhao Zhong is my mother". The government corruption was perceived as causing plagues, natural disasters, and poor agricultural yields, reflecting that the emperor had lost his Mandate of Heaven.As flooding along the Yellow River forced farmers and military settlers south, the labor surplus incentivized exploitation. Disease outbreaks were reported in 171, 173, 179, 182, and 185 AD, with the potential cause theorized as the Antonine Plague of 165 to 180CE of smallpox or measles spreading along the Silk Road.
Through claims of providing curative water and bamboo playing, the Taoist leader Zhang Jue developed his initial following to send his disciples throughout northern China in preparation for a revolt. Their rapid rise was relatively unnoticed until they became too powerful to challenge. Zhang Jue intended to launch an uprising throughout the Han Empire, but the plan was betrayed before he was ready. Rebel sympathizers in Luoyang were arrested and executed, forcing a premature beginning in March 184. Despite the inevitable lack of co-ordination and overall preparation, tens of thousands of men rose in rebellion. Government offices were plundered and destroyed and the imperial armies were immediately forced on the defensive.
Rebels
Founders
The rebellion was led by Zhang Jue and his two younger brothers Zhang Bao and Zhang Liang, who were born in Julu Commandery. The brothers had founded a Taoist religious sect in present-day Shandong, praised as healers who offered free care to impoverished patients. Recognizing how the local government abused the peasant class through harsh labor and heavy taxes, they plotted rebellion.Taoist sect
The rebels were the first followers of the Way of Supreme Peace and venerated the deity Huang–Lao, who according to Zhang Jue, had given him a sacred book called the Crucial Keys to the Way of Peace based on the Taipingjing. Zhang Jue, who was said to be a sorcerer, called himself the "Great Teacher". When the rebellion was proclaimed on 4 March, Zhang Jue created a 16-word slogan spread through the brothers' medical work:Religious practices
Zhang Jue claimed to cure patients by having them confess sins for Taoist faith healing. The Zhang brothers believed in an impending apocalyptic change in the jiazi year, the beginning of the new sexagenary cycle, involving yellow skies marking new governance, which inspired the color of their headwear. Through the sect's communal activities like trances, fasting, musical performances, chanting, incense burning, and sermons, followers united across ethnic and gender lines. Several Xiongnu leaders, such as Yufuluo, lent their support, potentially inspiring Zhang Jue to adopt their shamanistic beliefs.Despite few surviving records, the early Path of Supreme Peace was likely similar to the Way of the Celestial Masters, considering that Zhang Jue claimed to be a descendant of Zhang Daoling. Much of the Taipingjing's surviving 52 chapters, found in the Daozang, have a direct relationship to the Way of the Celestial Masters with discrepancies potentially suppressed by later Taoists.
Zhang Jue's plans for rebellion
About a month before the rebellion, Zhang Jue ordered one of his advisors, Ma Yuanyi to recruit followers from both Jing and Yang provinces and have them gather in Ye. Since Ma Yuanyi frequently made visits to the Han imperial capital of Luoyang, he was able to persuade Feng Xu and Xu Feng, two members of Emperor Ling's trusted eunuch faction, to secretly aid Zhang Jue while feigning loyalty to the Emperor. However, a few days before the rebellion was set to begin, the Yellow Turbans were suddenly betrayed. One of the Taiping Dao's founding members, Tang Zhou, was excluded from further planning for reasons unknown, so he reported Ma Yuanyi to the proper authorities. Ma Yuanyi was later arrested and subsequently executed by dismemberment in Luoyang not too long after.When Emperor Ling was notified of what Zhang Jue and the Taiping Dao was plotting, he ordered Zhou Bin, Prefect of the Palace Parks, to conduct an investigation and capture any co-conspirators that sided with Zhang Jue. Hundreds of people were arrested and executed during this time.
Yellow Rebellion
When Zhang Jue heard that the Han government had learned about his plans to rebel, he quickly sent messengers to contact his allies throughout China and take action immediately. In March, Zhang Jue started the Yellow Turban Rebellion with roughly 360,000 followers wearing yellow headscarves or turbans. He called himself the "Lord General of Heaven", while his brothers Zhang Bao and Zhang Liang were called the "Lord General of Earth" and "Lord General of Man", respectively. The rebels attacked government offices, pillaged villages, and seized control of commanderies. Within 10 days, the rebellion had spread throughout China, alarming the Han imperial court in Luoyang.The rebels were mostly concentrated in the Ji, Jing, You and Yu provinces. The group led by Zhang Jue and his brothers gained their support in Ji Province, located just north of the Yellow River, near Zhang Jue's home territory of Julu Commandery and Wei Commandery. A second major uprising took place in Guangyang Commandery and Zhuo Commandery in You Province. The third centre of the rebellion was in Yingchuan Commandery and Runan Commandery in Yu Province, and Nanyang Commandery in northern Jing Province.
On 1 April 184, Emperor Ling appointed his brother-in-law He Jin, the Intendant of Henan, as General-in-Chief and ordered him to supervise the imperial armies in suppressing the rebellion. Emperor Ling also appointed three generals – Lu Zhi, Huangfu Song and Zhu Jun – to lead three separate armies to deal with the rebels with a total of roughly 40,000 troops. Lu Zhi went for Zhang Jue's base in Ji Province, while Huangfu Song and Zhu Jun headed to Yingchuan Commandery.
You Province: Guangyang and Zhuo commanderies
In You Province, the rebels killed Guo Xun, the provincial Inspector, and Liu Wei, the Administrator of Guangyang Commandery.Zou Jing, a colonel, led imperial forces to eliminate the rebels in You Province. Liu Bei led a group of volunteers to assist him.
Yu Province: Runan and Yingchuan commanderies
When the rebellion first broke out in Yu Province, the Han imperial court specially selected Wang Yun to be the inspector of the province to oversee the military operations.Zhao Qian, the administrator of Runan Commandery, led his troops to attack the rebels before Zhu Jun arrived, but was defeated at Shaoling. When Chen County was under attack by the rebels, seven of Zhao Qian's subordinates, who were non-military personnel, armed themselves with swords and attempted to fight the rebels but were all killed. Later, after the rebellion was suppressed, Emperor Ling issued an edict to honor the seven as the "Seven Virtuous".
Chen State, one of the commanderies in Yu Province, avoided the Yellow Turban Rebellion's bloodshed because the rebels feared Prince Liu Chong, famous for his unit of skilled archers.
The rebels in Runan Commandery, led by Bo Cai, initially defeated Zhu Jun in battle and drove him back. The imperial court sent a cavalry contingent, led by young officer Cao Cao, as reinforcements for Zhu Jun. Sometime between 28 May and 25 June, Zhu Jun, Huangfu Song, and Cao Cao joined forces to defeat Bo Cai at Changshe. While Bo Cai attempted to flee, Huangfu Song and Zhu Jun pursued him to Yangzhai County and defeated him again, causing the rebels to scatter.
Huangfu Song and Zhu Jun then defeated the rebels in Runan Commandery, led by Peng Tuo, at Xihua County. The imperial court ordered them to split up: Huangfu Song would attack the rebels at Dong Commandery, while Zhu Jun would attack the rebels at Nanyang Commandery. During this time, Wang Yun, the Inspector of Yu Province, found evidence that the rebels had been secretly maintaining contact with Zhang Rang, the leader of the eunuch faction in Luoyang, so he reported it to Emperor Ling, who scolded Zhang Rang but did not punish him.
Between 7 November and 6 December, Bao Hong, a colonel, led imperial forces to attack the rebels in Gebei and defeated them.
Ji Province: Wei and Julu commanderies
In the meantime, Lu Zhi defeated Zhang Jue's rebel forces in Julu Commandery and besieged the rebel leader in Guangzong County. However, after a eunuch falsely accused Lu Zhi of treason, Emperor Ling ordered his arrest, escorted back to Luoyang as a prisoner. The imperial court then sent General Dong Zhuo to take over Lu Zhi's position and attack Zhang Jue. However, Dong Zhuo failed and retreated.On 23 or 24 September, Huangfu Song and Fu Xie, a Major under him, defeated the rebels at Cangting, captured their leader Bu Ji, and killed over 7,000 rebels, including other minor leaders Zhang Bo and Liang Zhongning. On 25 September, the imperial court ordered him to replace Dong Zhuo and lead his troops north to Guangzong County and attack Zhang Jue.
Zhang Jue died of illness in October 184 while under attack by Huangfu Song in Guangzong County. Between 21 November and 20 December, Huangfu Song kept attacking Zhang Liang, who had taken over command of his brother's followers at Guangzong County. Unable to defeat Zhang Liang's skilled Yellow Turbans, Huangfu Song switched to a defensive approach, tricking the rebels into lowering their guard for a devastating nighttime strike. Zhang Liang was killed in action alongside 30,000 rebels, while another 50,000 rebels drowned while attempting to flee across a river. Huangfu Song burnt over 30,000 carts containing rebel supplies and captured most of their family members. Huangfu Song then had Zhang Jue's body excavated and decapitated, sending his head to the imperial court in Luoyang.
In recognition of Huangfu Song's achievements, Emperor Ling promoted him to Left General of Chariots and Cavalry. Between 21 December 184 and 18 January 185, Huangfu Song joined forces with Guo Dian, the Administrator of Julu Commandery, to attack the remaining rebels led by Zhang Jue's other brother, Zhang Bao. They defeated the rebels at Xiaquyang County, killed Zhang Bao, and received the surrender of over 100,000 rebels.