Xhosa people
The Xhosa people are an ethnic group in South Africa, Zimbabwe, Botswana, Namibia, and Lesotho. They are the second largest ethnic group in South Africa and are native speakers of the isiXhosa language.
The Xhosa people are descendants of Nguni clans who settled in the southeastern part of Southern Africa displacing the original inhabitants, the Khoisan. Archaeological evidence suggests that the Xhosa people have inhabited the area since the 7th century.
Presently, over ten million Xhosa-speaking people are distributed across Southern Africa. In 1994 the self-governing bantustans of Transkei and Ciskei were incorporated into South Africa, becoming the Eastern Cape province.
the majority of Xhosa speakers, approximately 19.8 million, lived in the Eastern Cape, followed by the Western Cape, Gauteng, the Free State, KwaZulu-Natal, North West, Mpumalanga, the Northern Cape, and Limpopo.
There is a small but significant Xhosa-speaking community in Zimbabwe, and their language, isiXhosa, is recognized as an official national language. This community was brought by Cecil John Rhodes for cheap labour in Rhodesian mines in early 20th century.
History
Some archaeological evidence has been discovered that suggests that Xhosa-speaking people have lived in the Eastern Cape area since at least the 7th century. The modern Xhosa are Nguni people, a stock of BantuOrigins
The Xhosa people are descendants of the ancestors of Ngunis. Xhosa oral history also mentions a historical settlement called 'Eluhlangeni' believed to have been in East Africa in which the Ngunis lived in for some time before continuing with their migration.Based on oral traditions and historical accounts, King Malangana—often identified as a key ancestor in the Xhosa lineage —is associated with the migration of Nguni/Embo peoples from areas now known as KwaZulu-Natal. Upon crossing mountains and Mtamvuna river in present day, South Africa, these farm-working agropastoralists brought their cattle and goats with them and absorbed the weaker San groups in the region. They also brought weapons, notably their assegais and their shields and would form groups or chiefdoms and kingdoms mainly in what is now the Eastern Cape.
Kingdom
According to oral tradition, the modern Xhosa Kingdom was founded somewhere before the 15th century by Tshawe who overthrew his brother Cirha with the help of the amaNgwevu clan of the amaMpondomise Kingdom. Tshawe and his army then incorporated formerly independent Nguni clans into the Xhosa Kingdom. Khoekhoe tribes were incorporated, including the Inqua, the Giqwa, and the amaNgqosini.Formerly independent clans and chiefdoms in the region became tributary to the amaTshawe and spoke isiXhosa as their primary language.
The Xhosa polity achieved political ascendancy over most of the Cape Khoe extending to the very fringes of the Cape Peninsula.
With the settlement of the Cape by Europeans in 1652, the native Khoisan populations were gradually pushed eastwards until, in the 1700s, the borders of the Cape Colony had pushed populations far enough east to create a critical mass of hostile population to resist the colonists in the Eastern Cape. This sparked off the Cape frontier wars, which represent some of the longest military resistance to colonialism.
The historical end result would be the containment of large portions of the Cape native population into native reserves in the Easternmost part of the Cape. However, these populations would also continually serve as labour inside the Cape Colony. These native reserves would be re-branded "homelands" in the 20th century and would only be fully dismantled in 1994, with populations moving back into the wider Cape.
In the 19th century, the Xhosas fought and repulsed many tribes that were escaping the Zulus in the Colony of Natal, this was during the historical mfecane. Those who were accepted were assimilated into the Xhosa cultural way of life and followed Xhosa traditions. The Xhosas called these various tribes AmaMfengu, meaning wanderers, and were made up of clans such as the amaBhaca, Bhele, Hlubi people, House of Dlamini and Rhadebe. To this day, the descendants of the amaMfengu are part of the Xhosa people and they speak isiXhosa and practice the Xhosa culture.
Xhosa unity and ability to fight off colonial encroachment was to be weakened by the famines and political divisions that followed the cattle-killing movement of 1856–1858. Historians now view this movement as a millennialist response, both directly to a lung disease spreading among Xhosa cattle at the time, and less directly to the stress to Xhosa society caused by the continuing loss of their territory and autonomy.
Some historians argue that this early absorption into the wage economy is the ultimate origin of the long history of trade union membership and political leadership among Xhosa people. That history manifests itself today in high degrees of Xhosa representation in the leadership of the African National Congress, South Africa's ruling political party in the government.
Language
Xhosa is an agglutinative tonal language categorized under Bantu linguistic classification. While the Xhosas call their language "isiXhosa", it is usually referred to as "Xhosa" in English. Written Xhosa uses a Latin alphabet–based system. Xhosa is spoken by about 18% of the South African population, and has some mutual intelligibility with Zulu, especially Zulu spoken in urban areas. Many Xhosa speakers, particularly those living in urban areas, also speak Zulu and/or Afrikaans and/or English.Xhosa Rites of Passage
The Xhosa people, one of South Africa’s largest ethnic groups, uphold rich traditional rites of passage collectively known as imikhwetha. These sacred practices mark significant life stages, especially the transition from childhood to adulthood, and serve to connect individuals to their community, ancestors, and cultural heritage.Key Ritual Stages and Terms
Imbeleko is a deeply meaningful ceremony performed shortly after a child’s birth to introduce the newborn to the ancestors and formally welcome them into the family and community.Intonjane is the traditional initiation ceremony for girls, marking their passage into womanhood. Unlike boys, girls undergoing intonjane are not circumcised but experience seclusion and guidance on the roles, responsibilities, and cultural expectations of womanhood.
Ulwaluko is the cornerstone male initiation rite, meaning "transition" or "circumcision." It marks the transformation of an inkwenkwe into an indoda. The broader ulwaluko process comprises distinct phases:
1 Ukungena : Early morning circumcision is performed at the kraal by an ingcibi. Elders and older men then accompany the initiate, called the umkhewtha, to the secluded ibhoma or bhoma—a traditional round hut usually situated in mountainous or remote areas—where he will spend the seclusion period.
2 Seclusion in the Iboma: Typically lasting two to three weeks, the initiate lives in isolation. During this time, he receives teachings from elders and appointed attendants called ikhankatha about cultural responsibilities, community ethics, survival skills, and the meaning of manhood within Xhosa society. The initiate sheds his former clothes and dons special traditional attire symbolizing his new identity. In some communities, he carries a stick representing adulthood, maturity, and authority.
3 Ukuphuma : Upon completing the seclusion period, the initiate exits the ibhoma and runs to the nearest river to bathe, cleansing himself physically and spiritually, symbolizing rebirth and full acceptance as a man by the community.
4 Umgidi: A vital celebration held on the initiate’s return home after ukuphuma. The family and wider community slaughter a sheep or cow in his honour, showering gifts and recognizing the newly initiated men. This communal feast emphasizes acceptance, new social status, and belonging.
5 Ukusoka: The post-initiation ritual that often follows umgidi, involving symbolic gift-giving and public affirmation of the initiate’s status as a man. This phase includes wearing distinct traditional garments and participation in social functions that reinforce the transition.
6 Burning of the Iboma: On the day of umgidi or shortly thereafter, the ibhoma and initiation paraphernalia—including the initiate’s old clothes discarded during seclusion—are ceremonially burnt. This ritual seals the initiate’s metamorphosis and spiritually closes the seclusion chapter.
The term umphumo sometimes refers to the homecoming ceremony synonymous with ukuphuma and umgidi, marking the initiate’s reintegration into the community as a recognized man.
Clan names, or isiduko, passed down orally, are fundamental to Xhosa identity and social relations. Knowing one’s isiduko is central to cultural belonging and cohesion.
Modern Health and Safety Interventions
Since 1994, over 825 deaths and spread of infections, including HIV transmitted by shared blades, have made circumcision practices controversial. In 2007, the South African Broadcasting Corporation aired the mini-series Umthunzi Wentaba about Xhosa initiation rites, but it was pulled after traditional leaders objected to publicizing secret practices. In 2014, a Dutch doctor launched ulwaluko.co.za, featuring photographs of injuries from initiations, angering Eastern Cape leaders. The South African Film and Publication Board deemed the site scientific and educational, emphasizing the urgent need for awareness.Due to historic and ongoing health risks—including infections, complications, and fatalities tied to unsanitary circumcision practices—both governmental agencies and traditional authorities have implemented reforms to safeguard initiates:
- Legal age verification is mandatory prior to initiation, commonly setting the minimum age at 16 or 18 years.
- Parental or guardian consent is required for minors.
- Medical examinations before circumcision ensure initiates are healthy enough for the procedure.
- Traditional surgeons and initiation schools must be registered and subject to oversight enforcing safety protocols.
- Initiates are required to drink water regularly during seclusion, a measure introduced to prevent dangerous dehydration, which was previously practiced culturally in some circles.
- The use of sterile cutting instruments is promoted aggressively to avert transmission of HIV/AIDS, tetanus, and other infections.
- The Customary Initiation Act legislates cultural rites while ensuring health standards and human rights protections are met. This act legally mandates compliance with specified initiation regulations.