Witches' Sabbath
A Witches' Sabbath is a purported gathering of those believed to practice witchcraft and other rituals. The phrase became especially popular in the 20th century.
Origin of the phrase
The most infamous and influential work of witch-hunting lore, Malleus Maleficarum does not contain the word sabbath.The first recorded English use of sabbath referring to sorcery was in 1660, in Francis Brooke's translation of Vincent Le Blanc's book The World Surveyed: "Divers Sorcerers have confessed that in their Sabbaths they feed on such fare." The phrase "Witches' Sabbath" appeared in a 1613 translation by "W.B." of Sébastien Michaëlis's Admirable History of Possession and Conversion of a Penitent Woman: "He also said to Magdalene, Art not thou an accursed woman, that the Witches Sabbath is kept here?"
The phrase is used by Henry Charles Lea in his History of the Inquisition of the Middle Ages. Writing in 1900, German historian Joseph Hansen, who was a correspondent and a German translator of Lea's work, frequently uses the shorthand phrase hexensabbat to interpret medieval trial records, though any consistently recurring term is noticeably rare in the copious Latin sources Hansen also provides.
Lea and Hansen's influence may have led to a much broader use of the shorthand phrase, including in English. Prior to Hansen, use of the term by German historians also seems to have been relatively rare. A compilation of German folklore by Jakob Grimm in the 1800s seems to contain no mention of hexensabbat or any other form of the term sabbat relative to fairies or magical acts. The contemporary of Grimm and early historian of witchcraft, W.G. Soldan also does not seem to use the term in his history.
A French connection
In contrast to German and English counterparts, French writers used the term more frequently, albeit still relatively rarely. There seems to be deep roots to inquisitorial persecution of the Waldensians. In 1124, the term inzabbatos is used to describe the Waldensians in Northern Spain. In 1438 and 1460, seemingly related terms synagogam and synagogue of Sathan are used to describe Waldensians by inquisitors in France. These terms could be a reference to Revelation 2:9 Writing in Latin in 1458, Francophone author Nicolas Jacquier applies synagogam fasciniorum to what he considers a gathering of witches.About 150 years later, near the peak of the witch-phobia and the persecutions which led to the execution of an estimated 40,000-100,000 persons, with roughly 80% being women, the Francophone writers still seem to be the main ones using these related terms, although still infrequently and sporadically in most cases. Lambert Daneau uses sabbatha one time as Synagogas quas Satanica sabbatha. Nicholas Remi uses the term occasionally as well as synagoga. Jean Bodin uses the term three times and, across the channel, the Englishman Reginald Scot writing a book in opposition to witch-phobia, uses the term but only once in quoting Bodin.
In 1611, Jacques Fontaine uses sabat five times writing in French and in a way that would seem to correspond with modern usage. The following year, Pierre de Lancre seems to use the term more frequently than anyone before.
File:La Danse du Sabbat.jpg|thumb|La danse du Sabbat, artist Émile Bayard: illustration from Histoire de la Magie by Jean-Baptiste Pitois, Paris, 1870: circle dance of naked witches and demons around Devil standing on a dolmen atop a tumulus.|288x288px
In 1668, a late date relative to the major European witch trials, German writer Johannes Praetorius published "Blockes-Berges Verrichtung", with the subtitle "Oder Ausführlicher Geographischer Bericht/ von den hohen trefflich alt- und berühmten Blockes-Berge: ingleichen von der Hexenfahrt/ und Zauber-Sabbathe/ so auff solchen Berge die Unholden aus gantz Teutschland/ Jährlich den 1. Maij in Sanct-Walpurgis Nachte anstellen sollen". As indicated by the subtitle, Praetorius attempted to give a "Detailed Geographical Account of the highly admirable ancient and famous Blockula, also about the witches' journey and magic sabbaths".
Writing more than two hundred years after Pierre de Lancre, another French writer, Lamothe-Langon, uses the term in translating into French a handful of documents from the inquisition in Southern France. Joseph Hansen cited Lamothe-Langon as one of many sources.
A term favored by recent translators
Despite the infrequency of the use of the word sabbath to denote any such gatherings in the historical record, it became increasingly popular during the 20th century.Cautio Criminalis
In a 2003 translation of Friedrich Spee's Cautio Criminalis the word sabbaths is listed in the index with a large number of entries. However, unlike some of Spee's contemporaries in France, who occasionally, if rarely, use the term sabbatha, Friedrich Spee does not ever use words derived from sabbatha or synagoga. Spee was German-speaking, and like his contemporaries, wrote in Latin. Conventibus is the word Spee uses most frequently to denote a gathering of witches, whether supposed or real, physical or spectral, as seen in the first paragraph of question one of his book. This is the same word from which English words convention, convent, and coven are derived. Cautio Criminalis was written as a passionate innocence project. As a Jesuit, Spee was often in a position of witnessing the torture of those accused of witchcraft.Malleus Maleficarum
In a 2009 translation of Dominican inquisitor Heinrich Kramer's Malleus Maleficarum, the word sabbath does not occur. There is a line describing a supposed gathering that uses the word concionem; it is accurately translated as an assembly. However in the accompanying footnote, the translator seems to apologize for the lack of both the term sabbath and a general scarcity of other gatherings that would seem to fit the bill for what he refers to as a "black sabbath".Fine art
The phrase is also popular in recent translations of the titles of artworks, including:- The Witches' Sabbath by Hans Baldung
- Witches' Sabbath by Frans Francken
- Witches' Sabbath in Roman Ruins by Jacob van Swanenburgh
- As a recent translation from the original Spanish El aquelarre to the English title Witches' Sabbath and Witches' Sabbath or The Great He-Goat both works by Francisco Goya
- Muse of the Night by Luis Ricardo Falero
Music
Disputed accuracy of the accounts of gatherings
Modern researchers have been unable to find any corroboration with the notion that physical gatherings of practitioners of witchcraft occurred. In his study "The Pursuit of Witches and the Sexual Discourse of the Sabbat", the historian Scott E. Hendrix presents a two-fold explanation for why these stories were so commonly told in spite of the fact that sabbats likely never actually occurred. First, belief in the real power of witchcraft grew during the late medieval and early-modern Europe as a doctrinal view in opposition to the canon Episcopi gained ground in certain communities. This fueled a paranoia among certain religious authorities that there was a vast underground conspiracy of witches determined to overthrow Christianity. Women beyond child-bearing years provided an easy target and were scapegoated and blamed for famines, plague, warfare, and other problems. Having prurient and orgiastic elements helped ensure that these stories would be relayed to others.Ritual elements
's Ronald Hutton has encapsulated the Witches' Sabbath as an essentially modern construction, saying:The book Compendium Maleficarum, by Francesco Maria Guazzo, illustrates a typical view of gathering of witches as "the attendants riding flying goats, trampling the cross, and being re-baptised in the name of the Devil while giving their clothes to him, kissing his behind, and dancing back to back forming a round."
In effect, the sabbat acted as an effective 'advertising' gimmick, causing knowledge of what these authorities believed to be the very real threat of witchcraft to be spread more rapidly across the continent. That also meant that stories of the sabbat promoted the hunting, prosecution, and execution of supposed witches.
The descriptions of Sabbats were made or published by priests, jurists and judges who never took part in these gatherings, or were transcribed during the process of the witchcraft trials. That these testimonies reflect actual events is for most of the accounts considered doubtful. Norman Cohn argued that they were determined largely by the expectations of the interrogators and free association on the part of the accused, and reflect only popular imagination of the times, influenced by ignorance, fear and religious intolerance towards minority groups.
File:Frans Francken - Witches' Sabbath.jpg|thumb|294x294px|Witches' Sabbath by Frans Francken the Younger. Note amorous imps, brewing of magic potions and magical flight of witches up a chimney
File:Francisco de Goya y Lucientes - Witches Sabbath - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|315x315px|Aquelarre by Francisco Goya.
Some of the existing accounts of the Sabbat were given when the person recounting them was being tortured, and so motivated to agree with suggestions put to them.
Christopher F. Black claimed that the Roman Inquisition's sparse employment of torture allowed accused witches to not feel pressured into mass accusation. This in turn means there were fewer alleged groups of witches in Italy and places under inquisitorial influence. Because the Sabbath is a gathering of collective witch groups, the lack of mass accusation means Italian popular culture was less inclined to believe in the existence of Black Sabbath. The Inquisition itself also held a skeptical view toward the legitimacy of Sabbath Assemblies.
Many of the diabolical elements of the Witches' Sabbath stereotype, such as the eating of babies, poisoning of wells, desecration of hosts or kissing of the devil's anus, were also made about heretical Christian sects, lepers, Muslims and Jews. The term is the same as the normal English word "Sabbath", referring to the witches' equivalent to the Christian day of rest; a more common term was "synagogue" or "synagogue of Satan" possibly reflecting anti-Jewish sentiment, although the acts attributed to witches bear little resemblance to the Sabbath in Christianity or Jewish Shabbat customs. The Errores Gazariorum, which mentions the Sabbat, while not discussing the actual behavior of the Cathars, is named after them, in an attempt to link these stories to an heretical Christian group.
More recently, scholars such as Emma Wilby have argued that although the more diabolical elements of the witches' sabbath stereotype were invented by inquisitors, the witchcraft suspects themselves may have encouraged these ideas to circulate by drawing on popular beliefs and experiences around liturgical misrule, cursing rites, magical conjuration and confraternal gatherings to flesh-out their descriptions of the sabbath during interrogations.
Christian missionaries' attitude to African cults was not much different in principle to their attitude to the Witches' Sabbath in Europe; some accounts viewed them as a kind of Witches' Sabbath, but they are not. Some African communities believe in witchcraft, but as in the European witch trials, people they believe to be "witches" are condemned rather than embraced.