Ultimate frisbee
Ultimate frisbee is a non-contact team sport played with a disc flung by hand. Ultimate was developed in 1968 by Joel Silver, Buzzy Hellring, and Jonny Hines in Maplewood, New Jersey. Although ultimate resembles many traditional sports in its athletic requirements, it is unlike most sports due to its focus on self-officiating, even at the highest levels of competition. The term "frisbee" is a registered trademark of the Wham-O toy company, and thus the sport is not formally called "ultimate frisbee", though this name is still in common casual use. Points are scored by passing the disc to a teammate in the opposing end zone. Other basic rules are that players must not take steps while holding the disc, while interceptions, incomplete passes, and passes out of bounds are turnovers. Rain, wind, or occasionally other adversities can make for a testing match with rapid turnovers, heightening the pressure of play.
From its beginnings in the American counterculture of the late 1960s, ultimate has resisted empowering any referee with rule enforcement. Instead, it relies on the sportsmanship of players and invokes the "spirit of the game" to maintain fair play. Players call their own fouls, and dispute a foul only when they genuinely believe it did not occur. Playing without referees is the norm for league play but has been supplanted in club competition by the use of "observers" or "game advisors" to help in disputes, and the professional league employs empowered referees.
In 2012, there were 5.1 million ultimate players in the United States. Ultimate is played across the world in pickup games and by recreational, school, club, professional, and national teams at various age levels and with open, women's, and mixed divisions.
The USA has historically won most of the world titles, though not all. American teams won all three divisions at the world championship in 2024, and won the World Games in 2022. Other historically strong nations include Canada, Japan, Australia, and many European countries.
Invention and history
Team flying disc games using pie tins and cake pan lids were part of Amherst College student culture for decades before plastic discs were available. As of 2023, the college currently boasts a woman's team called Sparkle Motion and an open team titled Army of Darkness. A similar two-hand, touch-football-based game was played at Kenyon College in Ohio starting in 1942.File:Frisbie pie tin.jpg|thumb|Frisbie pie tin by the Frisbie Pie Company
From 1965 or 1966 Jared Kass and fellow Amherst students Bob Fein, Richard Jacobson, Robert Marblestone, Steve Ward, Fred Hoxie, Gordon Murray, and others evolved a team frisbee game based on concepts from American football, basketball, and soccer. This game had some of the basics of modern ultimate, including scoring by passing over a goal line, advancing the disc by passing, no travelling with the disc, and turnovers on interceptions or incomplete passes. Kass, an instructor and dorm advisor, taught this game to high school student Joel Silver during the summer of 1967 or 1968 at Northfield Mount Hermon School summer camp.
Joel Silver, along with fellow students Jonny Hines, Buzzy Hellring, and others, further developed ultimate beginning in 1968 at Columbia High School, Maplewood, New Jersey, US. The first sanctioned game was played at CHS in 1968 between the student council and the student newspaper staff. Beginning the following year, evening games were played in the glow of mercury-vapor lights on the school's student-designated parking lot. Initially players of ultimate Frisbee used a "Master" disc marketed by Wham-O, based on Fred Morrison's inspired "Pluto Platter" design. Hellring, Silver, and Hines developed the first and second edition of "Rules of Ultimate Frisbee". In 1970 CHS defeated Millburn High 43–10 in the first interscholastic ultimate game, which was played in the evening in the CHS's faculty parking lot. Millburn, and three other New Jersey high schools made up the first conference of ultimate teams beginning in 1971.
Alumni of that first league took the game to their colleges and universities. Rutgers defeated Princeton 29–27 in 1972 in the first intercollegiate game. This game was played exactly 103 years after the first intercollegiate American football game by the same teams at precisely the same site, which had been paved as a parking lot in the interim. Rutgers won both games by an identical margin.
Rutgers also won the first ultimate Frisbee tournament in 1975, hosted by Yale, with 8 college teams participating. That summer ultimate was introduced at the Second World Frisbee Championships at the Rose Bowl. This event introduced ultimate on the west coast of the US.
In 1975, ultimate was introduced at the Canadian Open Frisbee Championships in Toronto as a showcase event. Ultimate league play in Canada began in Toronto in 1979. The Toronto Ultimate Club is one of ultimate's oldest leagues.
In January 1977 Wham-O introduced the World Class "80 Mold" 165 gram frisbee. This disc quickly replaced the relatively light and flimsy Master frisbee with much improved stability and consistency of throws even in windy conditions. Throws like the flick and hammer were possible with greater control and accuracy with this sturdier disc. The 80 Mold was used in ultimate tournaments even after it was discontinued in 1983.
Discraft, founded in the late 1970s by Jim Kenner in London, Ontario, later moved the company from Canada to its present location in Wixom, Michigan. Discraft introduced the Ultrastar 175 gram disc in 1981, with an updated mold in 1983. This disc was adopted as the standard for ultimate during the 1980s, with Wham-O holdouts frustrated by the discontinuation of the 80 mold and plastic quality problems with discs made on the replacement 80e mold. Wham-O soon introduced a contending 175 gram disc, the U-Max, that also suffered from quality problems and was never widely popular for ultimate. In 1991 the Ultrastar was specified as the official disc for UPA tournament play and remains in wide use.
The popularity of the sport spread quickly, taking hold as a free-spirited alternative to traditional organized sports. In recent years college ultimate has attracted a greater number of traditional athletes, raising the level of competition and athleticism and providing a challenge to its laid back, free-spirited roots. In the 1990s, ultimate became a popular sport on university campuses around the world, leading to the establishment of a national sport federations.
In 2010, Anne Watson, a Vermont teacher and ultimate coach, launched a seven-year effort to have ultimate recognized as full varsity sport in the state's high schools. Watson's effort culminated on November 3, 2017, when the Vermont Principals Association, which oversees the state's high school sports programs, unanimously approved ultimate as a varsity sport beginning in the Spring 2019 season. The approval made Vermont the first U.S. state to recognize ultimate as a varsity sport.
In 2019, Oklahoma Christian University launched the first American varsity ultimate program and full ride ultimate scholarships competing in Division 3 Men's. They would go on to win National Championships in 2021 and 2022. Davenport University aims to follow suit adding Men's and Women's teams beginning in the 2023–24 academic year.
Players associations
In late December 1979, the first national player-run ultimate organization was founded in the United States as the Ultimate Players Association. Tom Kennedy was elected its first director. Before the UPA, events had been sponsored by the International Frisbee Association, a promotional arm of Wham-O.The UPA organized regional tournaments and has crowned a national champion every year since 1979. Glassboro State College defeated the Santa Barbara Condors 19–18 at the first UPA Nationals in 1979.
In 2010, the UPA rebranded itself as USA Ultimate.
The first European Championship tournament for national teams was held in 1980 in Paris. Finland won, with England and Sweden finishing second and third. In 1981, the European Flying Disc Federation was formed. In 1984, the World Flying Disc Federation was formed by the EFDF to be the international governing body for disc sports. The first World Championships tournament was held in 1983 in Gothenburg, Sweden.
The European Ultimate Federation is the governing body for the sport of ultimate in Europe. Founded in 2009, it is part of the European Flying Disc Federation and of the World Flying Disc Federation.
Ultimate Canada, the national governing body in Canada, was formed in 1993. The first Canadian National Ultimate Championships were held in Ottawa in 1987.
In 2006, ultimate became a BUCS accredited sport at Australian and UK universities for both indoor and outdoor open division events.
The WFDF was granted full IOC recognition on 2 Aug 2015. This allows the possibility for the organization to receive IOC funding and become an Olympic Game.
Rules
A point is scored when one team catches the disc in the opposing team's end zone.Each point begins with both teams lining up on the front of their respective end zone line. Standing beyond the end zone line before the disc is thrown by the defense to the offense is known as an "offsides" violation. A regulation grass outdoor game has seven players per team. In mixed ultimate, the teams usually play with a "4-3" ratio, meaning either 4 men and 3 women or 4 women and 3 men will be playing. The offensive end zone dictates whether there are more men or women. This end zone is called the 'gen-zone', short for gender zone.
Each point begins with the two teams starting in opposite end zones. The team who scored the previous point are now on defense. The teams indicate their readiness by raising a hand, and the team on defense will throw the disc to the other team. This throw is called a "pull". When the pull is released, all players are free to leave their end zones and occupy any area on the field. Both teams should not leave the end-zone before the pull is released. Thus, the defending team must run most of the field length at speed to defend immediately, and a good pull is designed to hang in the air as long as possible to give the defending team time to make the run.
To score goals, the players of each team try to get the possession of the flying disc, pass it from one teammate to the other, and keep it away from the opponents till it is carried all the way towards their end zone or goal area. Each end-zone lies at each end of the court.
The player holding the disc must establish a pivot point. They must establish a pivot at "the appropriate spot" on the field. The player can also catch and throw the disc within three steps without establishing a pivot. A violation of these rules is called a "travel". The disc is advanced by throwing it to teammates. If a pass is incomplete, it is a "turnover" and the opposing team immediately gains possession, playing to score in the opposite direction. Passes are incomplete if they are caught by a defender, touch the ground, or touch an out-of-bounds object before being caught. The first body part to touch the ground is the one considered for bounds, which means a player may catch the disc and 'toe the line', or put a foot down, before falling out of bounds. However, if a player jumps from in bounds, catches, and then throws the disc while in the air and technically out of bounds, the disc is still in play and can be caught or defended by players on the field. This feat of athleticism and precision is highly praised, and dubbed "Greatest." Once possession of the disc is obtained, however, it cannot be forced out of the throwers possession before it leaves their hand. A common infraction of this nature is called a "strip", in which one player feels that they had enough possession of the disc to stop its rotation before it was taken out of their hand.
Ultimate is non-contact. Non-incidental, play-affecting, or dangerous physical contact is not allowed. Non-incidental contact is a foul, regardless of intent, with various consequences depending on the situation and the league rules. Incidental contact, like minor collisions while jumping for the disc or running for it, can be acceptable, depending on the circumstances. Parameters like who has the "right" to the relevant space, who caught the disc etc. will determine whether a foul has been committed or not. Attitudes can vary between leagues and countries, even if the letter of the rule remains the same.
Contact is disallowed for both defence and offence, including the defender marking the offensive player with the disc, and there are further restrictions on positions this defender can take in order to minimize incidental contact.
Defending against the person who has the disc is a central part of the defensive strategy. The defensive "marker" counts aloud to 10 seconds, which is referred to as "stalling". If the disc has not been thrown when the defending player reaches 10, it is turned over to the other team. "Stall" can only be called after the defender has actually counted the 10 seconds. In order for the "mark" to be considered as counting all the way to ten, the thrower must throw the disc before the mark is able to say the "T" in the word ten. If the mark is accused of counting too fast, then the thrower can call a violation, in which the mark then has to subtract two seconds from their previous stall count and slow their counting. There can only be one player defending in a radius around the person who has the disc unless that player is defending against another offensive player. The marker must stay one disc's diameter away from the thrower and must not wrap their hands around the thrower, or the person with the disc can call a foul.
In ultimate, there is no concept of intentional vs. unintentional fouls: infractions are called by the players themselves and resolved in such a way as to minimize the impact of such calls on the outcome of the play, rather than emphasizing penalties or "win-at-all-costs" behavior. If a player disagrees with a foul that was called on them, they can choose to "contest" the infraction. In many instances, a conversation ensues between both parties involved in the foul, and a verdict is determined as to whether the disc will be returned and a "do-over" will commence, or if the person guilty of the foul has no objections to the call. A common infraction, intentional or not, is a "pick" where the offense is somehow in the way of your pursuit of your "check" in man-to-man defense. This only applies when you started within 10 feet of your "check" and the game play is stopped so that the players involved go back to where the "pick" occurred. The integrity of ultimate depends on each player's responsibility to uphold the spirit of the game.
Ultimate is predominantly self-refereed, relying on the on-field players to call their own infractions and to try their best to play within the rules of the game. It is assumed that players will not intentionally violate the rules and will be honest when discussing foul calls with opponents. This is called Spirit of the Game, or simply Spirit. After a call is made, the players should agree on an outcome, based on what they think happened and how the rules apply to that situation. If players cannot come to agreement on the call's validity, the disc can be given back to the last uncontested thrower, with play restarting as if before the disputed throw. Coaches and other players on the sidelines cannot make calls, however they may inform players of specific rules in the case of a contested call. Players on the sideline may also be asked for their view, as they often have "best perspective" to see what happened.
A regulation outdoor game is played 7 7, with substitutions allowed between points and for injuries. Games are typically played to a points limit of 13/15/17 or more, or a time limit of 75/90/100 minutes. There is usually a halftime break and an allowance of two timeouts per team each half.
A regulation field is by, including end zones each deep.
Competitive ultimate is played in gender divisions using gender determination rules based on those of the IOC. Different competitions may have a "men's" or an "open" division. Mixed is officially played with 4 of one gender and 3 of the other, but variants exist for different numbers. Men's, women's, and mixed ultimate are played by the same rules besides those explicitly dealing with gender restrictions.