Tumbuka language
Chitumbuka or simply Tumbuka is a Bantu language of Central and Southern Africa spoken primarily in Malawi, Zambia, Tanzania, and Zimbabwe. It is the native and primary language of at least 13 groups of Bantu peoples, namely, the Senga, Tumbuka, Yombe, Phoka, Henga, Balowoka, Fungwe, Hewe, Northern Ngoni, Kamanga and Tonga people, with 12 known and studied dialects. The chi- prefix in front of Tumbuka means "the language of", so the language is usually called Chitumbuka even in English publications. In Northern Malawi, Chitumbuka is spoken in all 6 districts of the region, namely, Rumphi, Mzimba, Karonga, Chitipa, Nkhata-Bay, and Likoma. In Central Malawi, it is spoken primarily in 3 districts of Kasungu, Nkhotakota and Ntchisi. In the Eastern Province of Zambia, Chitumbuka is spoken mainly in 5 districts, namely, Lumezi, Chasefu, Lundazi and Chama, with some in Chipangali and Chipata. In Muchinga Province of Zambia, Chitumbuka is spoken in the districts of Isoka, Mafinga and surrounding areas. In Southern Tanzania, it is spoken in Mbeya, Rungwe and Njombe districts that share boundary with Northern Malawi. In Zimbabwe, Chitumbuka is spoken to the lesser extent in Harare due to migrant labour by over 20,000 people who migrated in early 18th century.
Speakers
In 2024, there were approximately 7.1 million native Chitumbuka speakers from all the 3 countries, excluding speakers from Zimbabwe whose data was not added. In Malawi and Zambia, there are nearly 1,600,000 people who speak it as their second language. The majority of Chitumbuka speakers live in Malawi and Zambia, with half a million living in South Tanzania, and over 20,000 in Zimbabwe.Official and regional status
In 1947, Chitumbuka was made an official language of Malawi for 21 years along with Chewa and English. It was in 1968 when Hastings Kamuzu Banda removed the language as a result of his one-nation, one-language policy. The Chitumbuka language suffered a lot during the rule of President Banda due to his tribalistic and racist policies. Chitumbuka was removed from the school curriculum, the national radio, and the print media. With the advent of multi-party democracy in 1994, Chitumbuka programmes were started again on the radio.Dialects
There are several dialects of Chitumbuka spoken in three countries. Malawi has Chikamanga, Chiphoka and Chihewe dialects that are spoken in Rumphi and Karonga Districts; Chiwenya spoken in Chitipa District and Chitumbuka spoken in Mzimba and NkhataBay Districts, including Mzuzu City. The Rumphi variant is often regarded as the most "linguistically pure" and is sometimes called "real Chitumbuka".Orthography
Two systems of writing Tumbuka are in use: the traditional spelling, in which words such as banthu 'people' and chaka 'year' are written with 'b' and 'ch', and the new official spelling, in which the same words are written with 'ŵ' and 'c', e.g. ŵanthu and caka. There is some uncertainty over where to write 'r' and where 'l', e.g. cakulya or cakurya 'food'. There is also hesitation between the spellings 'sk' and 'sy'.Phonology
Vowels
The same vowels,,,, and syllabic are found in Tumbuka as in the neighbouring languages.Consonants
Tumbuka consonants are similar to those of the neighbouring languages of Malawi, Tanzania and Zambia, but with certain differences. The continuant sounds, and, which are absent or marginal in other related languages, are common in Tumbuka. Also common are the palatalised sounds,,,,,, and. In Tumbuka there are no affricates such as,,,. The sounds and are never nasalised in Tumbuka, so that Nyanja nsómba = Tumbuka somba. The sound is found only in foreign words such as shati and shuga. Tumbuka sometimes corresponds to, for example Chewa kudwala 'to be ill' = Tumbuka kulwala, Chewa kudya 'to eat' = Tumbuka kulya. The pronunciation of "sk" and "zg" varies according to dialect.Tumbuka consonants are frequently either palatalised or rounded Some of them can also be preceded by a homorganic nasal. The possible consonant combinations are shown in the table below:
Tone
Tumbuka has a tonal accent but in a very limited way, in that every word, spoken in isolation, has the same falling tone on the penultimate syllable. It is therefore not possible in Tumbuka to contrast two different words or two different tenses tonally, as it is in other Bantu languages. However, this penultimate falling tone occurs not on every word, but only on the last word of a phonological phrase; e.g. in the following sentence, only the second word has a tone, the first being toneless:- ti-ku-phika sî:ma 'we are cooking porridge'
Intonational tones are also used in Tumbuka; for example, in yes-no questions there is often a High-Low fall on the final syllable of the question:
- ku-limirâ-so ngô:mâ? 'are you also weeding the maize?'
Nouns
Noun classes
As is usual with Bantu languages, Tumbuka nouns are grouped into different noun classes according to their singular and plural prefixes. Each class of noun has its own adjective, pronoun, and verb agreements, known as 'concords'. Where the agreements disagree with the prefix, the agreements take precedence in deciding the class of noun. For example, the noun katundu 'possessions', despite having the prefix ka-, is placed in class 1, since one says katundu uyu 'these possessions' using the class 1 demonstrative uyu. Malawians themselves refer to the noun classes by traditional names such as "Mu-Ŵa-"; Bantu specialists, however, refer to the classes by numbers corresponding to the noun-classes of other Bantu languages. Occasionally nouns do not correspond to the classes below, e.g. fumu 'chief' irregularly has a plural mafumu in class 6.Class 1/2
Some nouns in this class lack the prefix Mu-:
- Munthu pl. ŵanthu = person
- Muzungu pl. ŵazungu = foreigner, white man
- Mwana pl. ŵana = child
- Bulu pl. ŵabulu = donkey
- Sibweni pl. ŵasibweni = maternal uncle
- Katundu = goods, possessions
- Mutu pl. mitu = head
- Mkuyu pl. mikuyu = fig-tree
- Moyo pl. miyoyo = life
- Mtima pl. mitima = heart
- Bele = breast
- Boma pl. maboma = government, district
- Botolo pl. mabotolo = bottle
- Fuko pl. mafuko = tribe, nation
- Jiso pl. maso = eye
- Maji = water
- Phiri pl. mapiri = hill
- Suzgo pl. masuzgo = problem, trouble
- Woko pl. mawoko = hand
- Caka pl. vyaka = year
- Caro pl. vyaro = country, land
- Ciŵeto pl. viŵeto = farm animal
- Cidakwa pl. vidakwa = drunkard
- Cikoti pl. vikoti = whip
- Mbale pl. mbale = plate
- Ndalama pl. ndalama = money
- Njelwa pl. njelwa = brick
- Nkhuku pl. nkhuku = chicken
- Somba pl. somba = fish
Some speakers treat words in this class as if they were in class 5/6.
- Lwande = side
- Lumbiri = fame
- Lulimi = tongue
- Kanthu pl. tunthu = small thing
- Kamwana pl. tuŵana = baby
- Kayuni pl. tuyuni = bird
- Tulo = sleep
These nouns are frequently abstract and have no plural.
- Usiku = night
- Ulimi = farming
- Ulalo pl. maulalo = bridge
- Uta pl. mauta = bow
- Kugula = to buy, buying
- Kwiba = to steal, stealing
- Pasi = underneath
- Kunthazi = in front, before
- Mukati = inside
Concords
Verbs, adjectives, numbers, possessives, and pronouns in Tumbuka have to agree with the noun referred to. This is done by means of prefixes, infixes, or suffixes called 'concords' which differ according to the class of noun. Class 1 has the greatest variety of concords, differing for pronouns, subject prefix, object infix, numbers, adjectives, and possessives:- Mwana uyu = this child
- Mwana yumoza = one child
- Mwana uyo = that child
- Mwana yose = the whole child
- Mwana waliyose = every child
- Mwana wakamuwona = the child saw him
- Mwana muchoko = the small child
- Mwana wa Khumbo = Khumbo's child
- Mwana wane = my child
- Mwana wawona = the child has seen
| noun | English | this | num | that | all | subj | object | adj | of | perf | |
| 1 | mwana | child | uyu | yu- | uyo | yose | wa- | -mu- | mu- | wa | wa- |
| 2 | ŵana | children | aŵa | ŵa- | awo | wose | ŵa- | -ŵa- | ŵa- | ŵa | ŵa- |
| 3 | mutu | head | uwu | wu- | uwo | wose | wu- | -wu- | wu- | wa | wa- |
| 4 | mitu | heads | iyi | yi- | iyo | yose | yi- | -yi- | yi- | ya | ya- |
| 5 | jiso | eye | ili | li- | ilo | lose | li- | -li- | li- | la | la- |
| 6 | maso | eyes | agha | gha- | agho | ghose | gha- | -gha- | gha- | gha | gha- |
| 7 | caka | year | ici | ci- | ico | cose | ci- | -ci- | ci- | ca | ca- |
| 8 | vyaka | years | ivi | vi- | ivyo | vyose | vi- | -vi- | vi- | vya | vya- |
| 9 | nyumba | house | iyi | yi- | iyo | yose | yi- | -yi- | yi- | ya | ya- |
| 10 | nyumba | houses | izi | zi- | izo | zose | zi- | -zi- | zi- | za | za- |
| 11 | lwande | side | ulu | lu- | ulo | lose | lu- | -lu- | lu- | lwa | lwa- |
| 12 | kayuni | bird | aka | ka- | ako | kose | ka- | -ka- | ka- | ka | ka- |
| 13 | tuyuni | birds | utu | tu- | uto | tose | tu- | -tu- | tu- | twa | twa- |
| 14 | uta | bow | uwu | wu- | uwo | wose | wu- | -wu- | wu- | wa | wa- |
| 15 | kugula | buying | uku | ku- | uko | kose | ku- | -ku- | ku- | kwa | kwa- |
| 16 | pasi | underneath | apa | pa- | apo | pose | pa- | -pa- | pa- | pa | pa- |
| 17 | kunthazi | in front | uku | ku- | uko | kose | ku- | -ku- | ku- | kwa | kwa- |
| 18 | mukati | inside | umu | mu- | umo | mose | mu- | -mu- | mu- | mwa | mwa- |
Sample phrases and text
The following is a list of phrases that can be used when one visits a region whose primary language is Tumbuka:| Tumbuka | English |
| Moni | Hello |
| Monile | hello, to a group of people |
| Muli makola? Mwaŵa uli? | how are you? |
| Muli makola? Mwaŵa uli? | How are you?, to a group of people |
| Nili makola | I'm okay |
| Tili makola | We're okay |
| Naonga | Thank you |
| Yewo | Thanks |
| Ndiwe njani zina lako? | What is your name? |
| Zina lane ndine.... | My name is.... |
| Nyengo ili uli? | What is the time? |
| Ningakuvwila? | Can I help you? |
| Uyende makola | Goodbye/go well/safe travels |
| Mwende makola | Goodbye/go well/safe travels |
| Enya/ Eh | Yes |
| Yayi/Chala | No |
| Kwali | I don't know |
| Mukumanya kuyowoya Chizungu? | Can you speak English? |
| Nayambapo kusambilila ChiTumbuka | I've just started learning Tumbuka |
| Mukung'anamula vichi? | What do you mean? |
| Chonde, ningaluta kubafa? | May I please go to the bathroom? |
| Nakutemwa/Nkhukutemwa | "I love you" |
| Phepa | Sorry |
| Phepani | Sorry |
| Banja | Family |
| Yowoya | Talk/speak |
Verbs
Subject prefix
All verbs must have a subject prefix, which agrees with the subject noun. For example, the word ciŵinda 'hunter' is class 7, so if it is subject, the verb has the prefix ci-:It is also possible for the subject to be a locative noun, in which case the verb has a locative prefix:
The locative prefix ku- is also used impersonally when discussing the weather:
When the subject is a personal pronoun, the subject prefixes are as follows :
In the perfect tense, these are shortened to n-a-, w-a-, w-a-, t-a-, mw-a-, ŵ-a-, e.g. t-a-gula 'we have bought'.
In Karonga dialect, in the 3rd person singular a- is found instead of wa-, and the 3rd plural is wa- instead of ŵa-, except in the perfect tense, when wa- and ŵa- are used.
Object-marker
To indicate the object, an infix can be added to the verb immediately before the verb root. Generally speaking, the object-marker is optional:The object-marker agrees with the class of the object, as shown on the table of concords above.
The object-marker can also be a locative :
The locative markers for personal pronouns are as follows:
Tenses
Tenses in Tumbuka are made partly by adding infixes, and partly by suffixes. Unlike Chichewa, tones do not form any part of the distinction between one tense and another.In the past a distinction is made between hodiernal tenses and remote tenses. However, the boundary between recent and remote is not exact.
Another distinction is made between past and perfect tenses. When a perfect tense is used it carries an implication that the resulting situation still exists at the time of speaking, for example: 'the pumpkins have spread over the garden'. The present perfect can also be used in verbs expressing a current situation such as ndakhala 'I am sitting' or ndakondwa 'I am pleased'. The remote perfect is used for events which happened some time ago but of which the effects still apply today, such as libwe lilikuwa 'the rock has fallen' or walikutayika 'he died'.
The future tenses similarly distinguish near from remote events. Some tenses imply that the event will take place elsewhere, for example ndamukuchezga 'I will go and visit'.
Compound tenses are also found in Tumbuka, such as wati wagona 'he had slept', wakaŵa kuti wafumapo 'he had just left' and wazamukuŵa waguliska 'he will have sold'.
| Tense | Tense marker | Example | Translation |
| Present infinitive | ku- | ku-luta | ‘to go' |
| - | - | - | |
| Present simple | -ku- | wa-ku-luta | ‘he/she goes/is going’ |
| Present habitual | -ku-...-anga | wa-ku-lut-anga | ‘he/she goes’ |
| - | - | - | |
| Present perfect | -a- | w-a-luta | ‘he/she has gone’ |
| Present perfect continuous | -a-...-anga | w-a-lut-anga | ‘he/she has been going' |
| Remote perfect | -liku- | wa-liku-luta | ‘he/she has gone’ |
| - | - | - | |
| Recent past simple | -angu- | w-angu-luta | ‘he/she went’ |
| Recent past continuous | -angu-...-anga | w-angu-lut-anga | ‘he/she was going' |
| Remote past simple | -ka- | wa-ka-luta | ‘he/she went’ |
| Remote past continuous | -ka-...-anga | wa-ka-lut-anga | ‘he/she was going/used to go' |
| - | - | - | |
| Near future | ...-enge | wa-lut-enge | 'he will go' |
| Emphatic future | -ti-...-enge | wa-ti-lut-enge | 'he will certainly go' |
| Distal future | -amu-- | w-amuku-gula | ‘he/she will buy’ |
| Remote future | -zamu-- | wa-zamu-luta | ‘he/she will go’ |
| Remote future continuous | -zamu-...-anga | wa-zamu-lut-anga | ‘he/she will be going' |
| - | - | - | |
| Present subjunctive | -e | ti-lut-e | ‘let's go' |
| Distal subjunctive | -ka-...-e | wa-ka-gul-e | ‘so that he can buy ' |
| Potential | -nga- | wa-nga-luta | 'he can go' |
Other future tenses are given by Vail and others.
In the 1st person singular, ni-ku- and ni-ka- are shortened to nkhu- and nkha-: nkhuluta 'I am going', 'I go', nkhalutanga 'I used to go'.
Negative verbs
To make the negative of a verb in Tumbuka, the word yayi or cha is added at or near the end of the clause. It seems that yayi is preferred by younger speakers:With the present perfect tense, however, a separate form exists, adding -nda- and ending in -e:
The Ngoni influence on Tumbuka
All Tumbuka dialects have to some extent been affected by the Zulu language, most especially in Mzimba District. Ngoni originated from the Ndwandwe people who were neighbours to the Zulu clan prior to being conquered by the Zulu and assimilated into the Zulu identity. The language the Ndwandwe spoke was thus nearly identical Zulu. Below are some examples of words found in chitumbuka that are of Zulu/Ndwandwe origin, though most of them have original Tumbuka counterpart words that can be used interchangeably at the speakers will,. The word njowi is used for finger/s.The Mzimba dialect goes so far as to have click consonants in words like chitha "urinate", which do not occur in other dialects.
| English | Tumbuka | Tumbuka-Ngoni dialect |
| See | Wona | Bheka |
| Smoke | Khweŵa | Bhema |
| Man | Mwanalume | Doda |
| Virgin | Mwali | Nthombi |
Examples
Months in Tumbuka:| English | Tumbuka |
| January | Mathipa |
| February | Muswela |
| March | Nyakanyaka |
| April | Masika |
| May | Vuna |
| June | Zizima |
| July | Mphepo |
| August | Mpupulu |
| September | Lupya |
| October | Zimya |
| November | Thukila |
| December | Vula |
An example of a folktale translated into Tumbuka and other languages of Northern Malawi is given in the Language Mapping Survey for Northern Malawi carried out by the Centre for Language Studies of the University of Malawi. The Tumbuka version of the folktale goes as follows:
Some vocabulary
Helpful phrases
- Enya = Yes
- Yayi = No
- Yebo = Thank you
- Taonga = We are thankful
- Nkhukhumba chakurya! = I want some food !
- Munganipako chakurya? = could you give me some food?
- Ine nkhuyowoya chiTumbuka yayi! = I do not speak chiTumbuka!
- Yendani makola = Travel well.
- Nkukhumba maji yakumwa = I would like water to drink.
Greetings
- Mwawuka uli? = Good morning.
- Tawuka makola. Kwali imwe? = Fine. And you?
- Muli uli? = How are you?
- Nili makola, kwali imwe? = I am fine, how are you?
- Mwatandala uli? = Good afternoon.
- Natandala makola. Kwali imwe? = Good afternoon. How are you?
- Monile = somewhat more formal than "Hi". Perhaps best translated as "Greetings".
- Tionanenge = We shall meet again.
People
The plural ba- is often used for politeness when referring to elders:- Munyamata = boy
- Banyamata = boys
- Musungwana = girl
- Basungwana = girls
- Bamwali = young ladies
- Banchembere = a woman with babies
- Bamama = mother
- Badada = dad
- Bagogo = grandmother
- Babuya = grandmother, also used when addressing old female persons
- Basekulu = grandfather
- Bankhazi = paternal aunt
- ŵa/Bamama ŵa/bachoko / ŵa/bakulu = maternal aunt usually your mother's younger/older sister
- Basibweni = maternal uncle
- Badada bachoko / bakulu = paternal uncle usually your father's younger/older brother
- Mudumbu wane = my brother/ sister
- Muchoko wane / muzuna wane/ munung'una wane = my young brother / sister
- Mukuru wane / mulala wane = my elder brother / sister
Verbs
- Kusebela = to play
- Kuseka = to laugh
- Kurya = to eat
- Kugona = to sleep
- Kwenda = to walk
- Kuchimbila = to run
- Kulemba = to write
- Kuchapa = to do laundry
- Kugeza = to bath
- Kuphika = to cook
- Kulima = to dig / cultivate
- Kupanda = to plant
- Kuvina = to dance
- Kwimba = to sing
Animals
- Fulu = tortoise
- Kalulu = hare
- Gwere = hippo
- Chimbwi = hyena
- Njoka = snake
- Nkhumba = pig
- Ng'ombe = cow
- Nchebe = dog
- Chona/pusi/kiti = cat
- Mbelele = sheep
- Nkalamu = lion
- Mbuzi = goat
- Nkhuku = chicken