Tomb effigy
A tomb effigy is a sculpted effigy of a deceased person usually shown lying recumbent on a rectangular slab, presented in full ceremonial dress or wrapped in a shroud, and shown either dying or shortly after death. Such funerary and commemorative reliefs were first developed in Ancient Egyptian and Etruscan cultures, and appear most frequently in Western European tombs from the late 11th century, in a style that continued in use through the Renaissance and early modern period, and is still sometimes used. They typically represent the deceased in a state of "eternal repose", with hands folded in prayer, lying on a pillow, awaiting resurrection. A husband and wife may be depicted lying side by side.
Medieval life-size recumbent effigies were first used for tombs of royalty and senior clerics, before spreading to the nobility. A particular type of late medieval effigy was the transi, or cadaver monument, in which the effigy is in the macabre form of a decomposing corpse, or such a figure lies on a lower level, beneath a more conventional effigy. Mourning or weeping figures, known as pleurants were added to important tombs below the effigy. Non-recumbent types of effigy became popular during the Renaissance. By the early Modern period, European effigies were often shown as alive, either kneeling or in a more active pose, especially for military figures. Variations show the deceased lying on their side as if reading, kneeling in prayer, or even standing. The recumbent effigy had something of a revival during the 19th-century Gothic revival, especially for bishops and other clerics.
Some of the best-known examples of the form are in Westminster Abbey in London, St Peter’s Basilica in Rome, Santi Giovanni e Paolo, Venice, and the Basilica of Santa Croce, Florence.
Antiquity
Egyptian
The religious beliefs of the societies that produced the earliest Egyptian effigies are unknown but are usually assumed by modern archeologists to have commemorated either fallen Gods or members of royalty. Their meaning can only be guessed at: modern archeologists see them as depictions intended to house the souls of the dead, intended to identify them as they travel through the realm of the dead. The earliest known tomb effigy is that of Djoser, found in the worship chamber of the Pyramid of Djoser. The effigies were typically smaller than life-size.Funerary masks were used throughout the Egyptian periods. Examples range from the gold masks of Tutankhamun and Psusennes I to the Roman "mummy portraits" from Hawara and the Fayum. Whether in a funerary or religious context, the purpose of a mask was the same: to transform the wearer from a mortal to a divine state. The Romans continued this tradition of idolatry, and also created many other types of effigies. The faces are often clearly portraits of individuals.
Classical
Recumbent effigies were a common tradition in the funerary art of the Etruscans, an advanced civilisation and culture that developed in central Italy before 700 BC and flourished until the late second century BC. Their effigies were typically carved in high relief, and produced in a variety of materials, including ceramic, terracotta, marble, limestone and alabaster. Structurally, they fall into two categories: small squarish cinerary urns for cremation and near life-sized rectangular sarcophagi for burials, with cremation becoming more popular over the centuries. Etruscan culture viewed the dead as no less complete than the living and existing in a realm where they were forever either in despair or enjoying material comfort. From 500 BC, the effigies show the deceased as they looked while alive. They are often lavishly dressed and enjoying food and drink as if at a feast. They are typically reclining rather than recumbent, with open eyes turned towards the viewer, and are often propped up on a pillow while leaning on their arm or elbow.By the 7th century the Etruscans were depicting human heads on canopic urns. When they started to bury their dead in the late 6th century they used terracotta sarcophagi, with an image of the deceased reclining on the lid alone or with a spouse. The Etruscan style influenced late Ancient Greek, especially in the manner of showing the dead as they had been in life, typically in the stele format. Any aspects of the style were adapted by the Romans, and eventually spread as far as Western Asia.
Pre-historic Romans of Palatine Hill often cremated their dead, while those of the Quirinal Hill would entomb the body. Eventually, the two practices merged, wherein the actual body was entombed, and an effigy of the deceased was burned. The Romans adopted the Etruscan tomb formats, maintaining the practice of showing the deceased as they were while alive. Roman sarcophagi were built from marble, and over time took on a more a contemplative, spiritual and redemptive iconographical tone, emphasising the deceased's former hierarchical role in society.
Medieval
Origin and characteristics
The spread of Christianity throughout Europe introduced new attitudes towards death and the dead, and for the first time tombs were built in places of worship, that is churches. The first medieval recumbent effigies were produced in the 11th century, with the earliest surviving example being that of Rudolf of Rheinfelden in Merseburg Cathedral in Germany. These early effigies show the deceased dressed in contemporary clothing. The format proliferated across Northern Europe in the late 12th century as it became popular amongst a growing class of wealthy elites who often commissioned their tombs years before their death; often seeking to cement their historical or spiritual legacy or —especially in early examples— restore a reputation tarnished by political or military defeat.The art historian Marisa Anne Bass described the intention of medieval effigies as representing death "to make present an absence." Historians differ as to the historical influences behind their designs. Writing in 1964, the art historian Erwin Panofsky suggested that their design was based on Spanish tombs and mosaic from North Africa. Other art historians have highlighted a primary influences from Classical funerary monuments, particularly those from Etruscan culture. The historian Shirin Fozi recognises the influence of earlier formats, but thought that the idea of placing an "enlivened" representation of the dead above their grave is "too intuitive and too obvious to be read that ancient analogues were necessarily sources of inspiration." According to the English historian Alfred C. Fryer, a "hastily made and lively effigy" of the deceased "in his very robes of estate" became part of the funeral procession, after which the representation was left either above or near the burial spot. They were placed on many types of tombs; at first on tomb slabs before table or chest tombs became the standard. Later, tombs built into cavities in walls became popular in France and Spain.
The early medieval effigies are typically made from limestone, sandstone, marble or more rarely bronze or wood. Alabaster became popular from the early 14th century, and by 1500 in England was the most popular the core material. Bronze remained in use, however due to its intrinsic value such tombs were often dismaltled and the material sold on; today only English examples survive.
The early "chest tombs" were typically built from several stone panels, with a cavity to support the effigy. They were designed to give the impression that the body had been placed within it, but the corpse was usually buried in a vault below or beside the monument. Recent excavations indicate that some 14th-century chests acted as containers for the body. However, relatively few medieval tomb monuments have been opened. Notable examples where the body was placed inside the chest include the tombs of Henry III of England and Edward I, both in Westminster Abbey, London. When the latter tomb was opened in 1774, the remains were found in a marble coffin placed on a bed of rubble.
Romanesque (France)
The earliest medieval examples are German; the style was significantly developed by French sculptors during the Romanesque style between and. By the 12th century, German, Dutch, Belgian, Spanish effigies largely followed the forms and iconography of the French models and had begun to adapt elements of the emerging Gothic style.Romanesque effigies were typically carved from white marble or alabaster, and depict the deceased's body and face as they appeared in life, with no marks of illness or death. The faces are idealised rather than accurate portrayals and often show the deceased much younger than they had been at death. The effigies are always recumbent—as if dead, and by the 14th century with hands clasped in prayer. The most common material is carvings on marble, alabaster or wood, with some examples cast in bronze or brass. The faces and hands of the few surviving wooden effigies are made from wax or plaster. The effigies were usually polychromed to simulate life, but in most cases, the paint has long since worn away.
The first secular examples appeared in the 12th century following the establishment of the knightly class. These tombs were usually placed on flat marble slabs supported by tomb-style chests decorated with heraldry and architectural detailing. The earliest examples showing armour date from the 1240s, with the most numerous surviving examples in England. The two most common poses from these English types are knights pulling out their sword or lying cross-legged; particularly English motifs although there are some Polish and French examples.
While the Romanesque and Gothic tombs were produced in great numbers —especially in France and England— it is estimated that over half were destroyed during the iconoclasm in the early modern period, and more again during the French Revolution. The majority of English churches were not subject to such destruction.