Rhetoric (Aristotle)
's Rhetoric is an ancient Greek treatise on the art of persuasion, dating from. The English title varies: typically it is Rhetoric, the Art of Rhetoric, On Rhetoric, or a Treatise on Rhetoric.
Background
is credited with developing the basics of a system of rhetoric that "thereafter served as touchstone" of the discipline, influencing the development of rhetorical theory from ancient through modern times. The Rhetoric is regarded by most rhetoricians as "the most important single work on persuasion ever written." Alan G. Gross and Arthur Walzer concur, indicating that, just as Alfred North Whitehead considered all Western philosophy a footnote to Plato, "all subsequent rhetorical theory is but a series of responses to issues raised" by Aristotle's Rhetoric. This is largely a reflection of disciplinary divisions, dating back to Peter Ramus' attacks on Aristotelian rhetoric in the late 16th century and continuing to the present.Like the other works of Aristotle that have survived from antiquity, the Rhetoric seems not to have been intended for publication, being instead a collection of his students' notes in response to his lectures. The treatise shows the development of Aristotle's thought through two different periods while he was in Athens, and illustrates Aristotle's expansion of the study of rhetoric beyond Plato's early criticism of it in the Gorgias as immoral, dangerous, and unworthy of serious study. Plato's final dialogue on rhetoric, the Phaedrus, offered a more moderate view of rhetoric, acknowledging its value in the hands of a true philosopher for "winning the soul through discourse". This dialogue offered Aristotle, first a student and then a teacher at Plato's Academy, a more positive starting point for the development of rhetoric as an art worthy of systematic, scientific study.
Aristotle developed the Rhetoric during two periods when he was in Athens, the first, from ; and the second, from .
The study of rhetoric was contested in classical Greece: on one side were the sophists, and on the other were Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle. The trio saw rhetoric and poetry as tools that were too often used to manipulate others by appealing to emotion and omitting facts. They accused the sophists in particular—including Gorgias and Isocrates—of this sort of manipulation. Plato blamed sophistical rhetoric for the arrest and the death of Socrates. In contrast to the emotional rhetoric and poetry of the sophists was a type of rhetoric grounded in philosophy and the pursuit of enlightenment.
Aristotle identified rhetoric as one of the three key elements—along with logic and dialectic—of philosophy. The first line of the Rhetoric is: "Rhetoric is a counterpart of dialectic." According to Aristotle, logic is concerned with reasoning to reach scientific certainty, while dialectic and rhetoric are concerned with probability and, thus, are the branches of philosophy that are best suited to human affairs. Dialectic is a tool for philosophical debate; it is a means for skilled audiences to test probable knowledge in order to learn. Rhetoric is a tool for practical debate; it is a means for persuading a general audience using probable knowledge to resolve practical issues. Dialectic and rhetoric partner to form a system of persuasion based on knowledge instead of upon manipulation and omission.
English translation
Most English readers in the 20th century relied on four translations of the Rhetoric. The first, by Richard C. Jebb, was published in 1909. The next two translations were published in the 1920s. John H. Freese's translation was published as a part of the Loeb Classical Library while W. Rhys Roberts' was published as a part of the Oxford University series of works in the Classics. Roberts' translation was edited and republished in 1954, and is widely available online. The fourth standard translation, by Lane Cooper, came out in 1932.Not until the 1990s did another major translation of the Rhetoric appear. Published in 1991 and translated by George A. Kennedy, a leading classicist and rhetorician, this work is notable for the precision of its translation and for its extensive commentary, notes, and references to modern scholarship on Aristotle and the Rhetoric. It is generally regarded today as the standard scholarly resource on the Rhetoric.
Modern translations are still being produced, such as the ones published in 2008 by Joe Sachs and the 2019 one by Robert C. Bartlett.
Neo-Aristotelian theory
Rhetorical theory and criticism in the first half of the 20th century was dominated by neo-Aristotelian criticism, the tenets of which were grounded in the Rhetoric and were summed up in 1925 by Herbert Wichelns. The dominance of neo-Aristotelian criticism was "virtually unchallenged until the 1960s" and even now is considered not only as one of many approaches to criticism, but as fundamental for understanding other theoretical and critical approaches which "developed largely in response to strengths and weaknesses."Overview of Book I
The Rhetoric consists of three books. Book I offers a general overview, presenting the purposes of rhetoric and a working definition; it also offers a detailed discussion of the major contexts and types of rhetoric. Book II discusses in detail the three means of persuasion that an orator must rely on: those grounded in credibility, in the emotions and psychology of the audience, and in patterns of reasoning. Book III introduces the elements of style and arrangement. Some attention is paid to delivery, but generally the reader is referred to the Poetics for more information in that area.Many chapters in Book I cover typical deliberative argument varieties in Athenian culture.
;Chapter One: Aristotle says rhetoric is the counterpart of dialectic. He explains the similarities between the two but fails to comment on the differences. Here he introduces the term enthymeme.
;Chapter Two: Aristotle defines rhetoric as the ability in a particular case to see the available means of persuasion. He defines Pistis as atechnic and entechnic. Of the pisteis provided through speech there are three: ethos, pathos, and logos. He introduces paradigms and syllogisms as means of persuasion.
;Chapter Three: Aristotle introduces the three genres of rhetoric: deliberative, forensic, and epideictic rhetoric. He also touches on which "ends" the orators in each of these genres hope to reach with their persuasions—which are discussed in further detail in later chapters. Aristotle introduces these three genres by saying that "he kinds of rhetoric are three in number, corresponding to the three kinds of hearers".
;Chapter Four: Aristotle discusses the types of political topics of deliberative rhetoric. The five most common are finance, war and peace, national defense, imports and exports, and the framing of laws.
;Chapter Five: Aristotle discusses the different ethical topics of deliberative rhetoric. Aristotle identifies the telos of human action with eudaimonia and describes the many factors contributing to it.
;Chapter Six: This explains in greater detail the stoikhea of the "good" described in the previous chapter.
;Chapter Seven: Introduces the term koinon. Discusses the "ends" of deliberative rhetoric in relation to the greater good or more advantageous.
;Chapter Eight: Aristotle defines and discusses the four forms of politeia useful in deliberative rhetoric: democracy, oligarchy, aristocracy, and monarchy.
;Chapter Nine: This chapter discusses the virtues and concepts of to kalon included in epideictic rhetoric. Aristotle describes what makes certain topics appropriate or worthy for praise or blame. He also states that it is important to highlight certain traits of the subject of praise.
;Chapter Ten: Aristotle discusses what syllogisms should be derived from kategoria and apologia for judicial rhetoric. He also introduces the wrongdoing, which is useful for judicial rhetoric.
;Chapter Eleven: This chapter discusses the many different types of hedone useful in judicial rhetoric to describe the motives for people doing wrong.
;Chapter Twelve: This chapter, also about judicial rhetoric, discusses people's dispositions of mind and whom people wrong from motives of hedone discussed in the previous chapter. Aristotle emphasizes the importance of willingness, or intentions, of wrongdoings.
;Chapter Thirteen: Aristotle classifies all acts that are just and unjust defined in judicial rhetoric. He also distinguishes what kinds of actions are fair and unfair with being just.
;Chapter Fourteen: This chapter parallels the koinon described in chapter Seven. Aristotle of "wrongdoing" meant for judicial rhetoric.
;Chapter Fifteen: Aristotle summarizes the arguments available to a speaker in dealing with evidence that supports or weakens a case. These atechnic pisteis contain laws, witnesses, contracts, tortures, and oaths.
Overview of Book II
Book II gives advice for all types of speeches. Aristotle's Rhetoric generally concentrates on ethos and pathos, and—as noted by Aristotle—both affect judgment. Aristotle refers to the effect of ethos and pathos on an audience since a speaker needs to exhibit these modes of persuasion.Chapter 1
In Chapter 1, Aristotle notes that emotions cause men to change their opinions and judgments. As such, emotions have specific causes and effects. A speaker can therefore employ this understanding to stimulate particular emotions from an audience. However, Aristotle states that along with pathos, the speaker must also exhibit ethos, which for Aristotle encompasses phronesis, Arete, and eunoia.Chapters 2–11
Chapters 2–11 explore those emotions useful to a rhetorical speaker. Aristotle describes how to arouse these emotions in an audience so that a speaker might be able to produce the desired action successfully. Aristotle arranges the discussion of the emotions in opposing pairs, such as anger and calmness or friendliness and enmity. For each emotion, Aristotle discusses the person's state of mind, against whom one directs the emotion, and for what reasons. It is pertinent to understand all the components in order to stimulate a certain emotion within another person.For example, to Aristotle, anger results from the feeling of belittlement. Those who become angry are distressed due to a foiling of their desires. The angry direct their emotion towards those who insult them or that which those people value. These insults are the reasoning behind the anger.
In this way, Aristotle defines each emotion, assesses the state of mind for those experiencing the emotion, determines to whom people direct the emotion, and reveals their reasoning behind the emotion. The significance of Aristotle's analysis stems from his idea that emotions have logical grounding and material sources.