Emperor Wen of Sui
Emperor Wen of Sui, personal name Yang Jian, childhood name Naluoyan, Xianbei name Puliuru Jian, was the founding emperor of the Sui dynasty of China. As a Buddhist, he encouraged the spread of Buddhism through the state.
He is credited with reunifying China proper in 589, bringing an end to nearly three centuries of political fragmentation that began with the breakaway of the Cheng-Han and Han-Zhao regimes from the Western Jin in 304. His reign also saw the initiation of the Grand Canal, a major infrastructure project that would later facilitate the integration of northern and southern China.
Yang Jian inherited the title of Duke of Sui upon his father's death in 568. As a Northern Zhou official, Yang Jian served with apparent distinction during the reigns of the Emperor Wu and Emperor Xuan. He served as a military commander and participated in the 577 campaign that culminated in the conquest of Northern Qi. This victory marked the unification of northern China under Northern Zhou hegemony. When the Emperor Xuan died in 580, Yang, as his father-in-law, seized power as regent. After defeating General Yuchi Jiong, he seized the throne for himself, establishing the new Sui dynasty.
He was the first ethnic Han ruler to gain lasting control over the entirety of North China after the Xianbei people conquered the region from the Liu Song dynasty. This excludes the brief reconquest by Emperor Wu of Liang, which did not result in sustained Han governance.
Emperor Wen's reign was a great period of prosperity, not seen since the Han dynasty. At the beginning of his reign, Sui faced the threat of the Göktürks in the north, neighbored Tibetan tribes in the west, Goguryeo in the northeast, and Champa in the south. By the end of Emperor Wen's reign, the Göktürks had split into an eastern and a western khaganate, the eastern one being nominally submissive to Sui, as was Goguryeo. Champa was defeated and, while not conquered, did not remain a threat.
Domestically, he implemented comprehensive reforms to stabilize governance and stimulate socioeconomic growth. He streamlined the bloated three-tier local administration into a more efficient two-level system and restructured the central government around core institutions: departments, boards, and courts. To bolster military and agricultural productivity, he strengthened the fubing garrison militia and juntian land redistribution systems inherited from earlier dynasties.
In terms of religious and cultural policy, he abolished anti-Buddhist policies of Emperor Wu of Northern Zhou, restoring Buddhism as the Sui's dominant religion. Major infrastructure projects included constructing the new capital Daxing, the Renshou Palace complex, and the Guangtong Canal, which linked the capital to the Yellow River, enhancing logistical and economic integration.
Together, these policies collectively fostered political consolidation, economic revival, and population expansion during his reign.
Early life
Yang Jian was a member of the northwestern Chinese military aristocracy which had arisen during the previous period of division, and he had served as a general under the Xianbei-led Northern Zhou. Yang Jian's family was the Yang clan of Hongnong, which had Han origins but had intermarried with the Xianbei for generations. Yang Jian's clan specifically claimed descent from the Han dynasty general Yang Zhen. Yang Zhen's eighth-generation descendant Yang Xuan served as a commandery governor for a Yan state during the Sixteen Kingdoms Period, and his descendants subsequently served the Northern Wei dynasty. Yang Jian emphasized Han Chinese cultural identity throughout his reign.Yang Jian's father was Yang Zhong, a follower of the late-Northern Wei general Yuwen Tai, who later became prominent in the politics of the Western Wei under Yuwen's regency. Due to his achievements, Yang Zhong and his family were bestowed the surname of "Puliuru" as part of Yuwen's Xianbeification policies. Yang Jian's mother was Lady Lü, who gave birth to him in a Buddhist temple in Pingyi. A Buddhist nun, Zhixian, was impressed with Yang Jian's appearance, and raised him in his early years. Yang Jian attended the imperial college for the sons of the nobility and high officials. When he was 14 years old, he was appointed to serve in the military under Yuwen Tai.
In 555, on account of Yang Zhong's accomplishments, Yang Jian received several official ranks, including the title of the Duke of Chengji County. In 557, Dugu Xin, impressed with Yang Jian, gave his daughter, Empress Dugu Qieluo, to Yang and made her his wife. He was 16, and she was 13. After Yuwen Tai's son Emperor Ming of Northern Zhou came to the throne later that year, Yang Jian was made the vice minister of internal affairs, and he was created the greater title of Duke of Daxing Commandery.
During the reign of Emperor Ming's brother Emperor Wu, Yang Jian was further promoted in military authority. After Yang Zhong's death in 568, he inherited the title of Duke of Sui. In 573, Emperor Wu took Yang Jian's daughter Yang Lihua to be the wife and crown princess of his son Yuwen Yun the Crown Prince, and further honored Yang Jian.
However, Yang Jian was suspected to had treasonous intentions due to his unusual appearance. Both Emperor Wu's brother Yuwen Xian, the Prince of Qi and the general Wang Gui have suggested that Emperor Wu execute Yang Jian, but Emperor Wu rejected. To avoid trouble, Yang Jian tried to hide his talents.
It was not until 575 when Emperor Wu involved Yang Jian in a major campaign against rival Northern Qi. Yang Jian also participated in the 576–577 campaign that saw Emperor Wu being able to destroy Northern Qi and seize its territory.
In 578, Emperor Wu died, and Yuwen Yun took the throne as Emperor Xuan. While he created Yang Jian's daughter Crown Princess Yang empress, he suspected Yang Jian deeply, although he made Yang Jian the minister of defense.
In 579, Emperor Xuan passed the throne to his young son Yuwen Chan, who became Emperor Jing, while Emperor Xuan became the retired emperor, but continued to exercise imperial powers.
On one occasion, Emperor Xuan became so suspicious of Yang Jian that he threatened, "I will surely slaughter your clan!" He summoned Yang Jian to the palace, instructing that he be killed if his expressions revealed any sign of concern. However, Yang Jian arrived without betraying any emotions and avoided execution.
Regency
In the summer of 581, Emperor Xuan intended to conquer Chen dynasty and sent Yang Jian to be the commandant at Yang Province for the campaign. However, Before Yang Jian could depart, Emperor Xuan suddenly fell seriously ill. Two of Emperor Xuan's close associates, Liu Fang and Zheng Yi, who were friends of Yang's, summoned Yang to the palace to prepare to serve as regent. This action overrode another influential associate, Yan Zhiyi, who had supported the idea of appointing Emperor Xuan's uncle, Yuwen Zhao, the Prince of Zhao, as regent. Emperor Xuan soon died, and Zheng and Liu issued an edict in Emperor Xuan's name appointing Yang regent.Yang, as the regent, abolished the wastefulness and cruel policies of Emperor Xuan, and he himself demonstrated both hard work and frugality, which impressed the people. Yang Jian, concerned about the potential threat posed by General Yuchi Jiong, summoned him back to the capital. However, Yuchi refused, believing that Yang Jian might be attempting to usurp the throne. Yuchi then rose at Xiang Province against Yang. He was supported by the generals Sima Xiaonan, the commandant at Xun Province and Wang Qian, the commandant at Yi Province. Within 68 days, general Wei Xiaokuan defeated Yuchi, who eventually committed suicide. Wang Qian was also defeated, and Sima fled to Chen. To prevent Yuchi's former headquarters at Yecheng from being used as a base of opposition, Yang Jian ordered the city to be demolished.
During Yuchi's campaign, Zhou princes like Yuwen Xian Prince of Bi and Yuwen Zhao made attempts to assassinate Yang, but failed. In response, Yang put Yuwen Xian, Yuwen Zhao and Zhao's younger brother Yuwen Sheng the Prince of Yue and their sons to death, and after Yuchi was defeated, he began to eliminate the Yuwen clan systematically. He also had Emperor Jing promote his titles quickly, and he changed his surname from Puliuru back to Yang. Around the beginning of 581, his title was promoted to Prince of Sui. In spring 581, he had Emperor Jing yield the throne to him, ending Northern Zhou and establishing Sui dynasty. Yang's choice of "Sui" as the name for his new dynasty was typical of Chinese historical dynastic transitions—using the old fief name as the new dynasty's name—but he, believing that the character for his fief Sui to contain a "辶" radical, denoting "walking" and therefore a lack of permanence in the regime, removed "辶" from the character, rendering it "隋".
Early ''Kaihuang'' era
The Book of Sui records Emperor Wen as having withdrawn his favour from the Confucians, giving it to "the group advocating Legalism and authoritarian government." Emperor Wen abolished Northern Zhou's governmental organization of six departments, instead establishing five main bureaus—executive bureau, examination bureau, legislative bureau, Palace Library, and eunuch bureau, with two additional independent agencies, 11 other independent departments, and 12 military commands.Yang Jian posthumously honored his father, Yang Zhong, and his mother, Lady Lü, as emperor and empress. He made his wife, Duchess Dugu, empress and their eldest son, Yang Yong, crown prince. He also granted imperial titles to his brothers and other sons. Initially, he created Emperor Jing of Northern Zhou the Duke of Jie but later ordered the execution of all grandsons of Yuwen Tai, including the Duke of Jie. He assigned most of the important governmental matters to his officials Gao Jiong, Yang Su, and Su Wei. He also sent his sons out to key provinces with broad powers. Additionally, he commissioned the official Pei Zheng to carry out a project aimed at simplifying the penal code and reducing the penalties of harsh laws, a reform that was later largely accepted by subsequent dynasties.
Emperor Wen did not maintain as submissive a relationship with the Göktürks, which brought resentment from the Göktürks' Ishbara Qaghan. In response to border attacks from the Göktürks and an alliance with Gao Baoning, a former general of Northern Qi who still controlled Ying Province, Emperor Wen, advised by General Zhangsun Sheng, implemented a strategy to create divisions within the Göktürks by placating Ishbara's subordinate qağans. This strategy successfully prevented the Göktürks from acting united against Sui.
In 581, Emperor Wen commissioned a major attack on Chen, and while it was initially successful, Emperor Wen withdrew the attack in spring 582 after hearing that Emperor Xuan of Chen had died, believing it wrong to attack a state whose emperor had just died.
In 582, believing that Chang'an was too small of a city, Emperor Wen built a new capital near the ancient city of Luoyang, which he named Daxing, and in spring 583 he moved the capital to Daxing.
Also in 582, Emperor Wen, grateful for Emperor Ming of Western Liang's refusal to support Yuchi Jiong in 580, withdrew his forces from Western Liang's capital, Jiangling, allowing the state a degree of self-governance. He also arranged for Emperor Ming's daughter to marry his son, Yang Guang, the Prince of Jin. However, after Emperor Ming's death in 585 and the succession of his son, Emperor Jing of Western Liang, Emperor Wen reestablished the commandant post in Jiangling and placed Western Liang under military control again.
By spring 583, the internal dissension within the Göktürks had become significant enough that Emperor Wen felt confident in commissioning his brother, Yang Shuang, the Prince of Wei, to lead a major attack against Ashina Shetu. Yang Shuang achieved victory, and part of his army, led by General Yin Shou, defeated Gao, who attempted to flee to the Qidan but was killed by his own subordinates, marking the end of Northern Qi resistance. After this defeat, the various subordinate khans engaged in further battles among themselves and against Ashina Shetu, while Sui chose not to intervene. By 584, Ashina Shetu submitted to Sui.
In the summer of 584, believing that the Wei River's sandbars and treacherous waters made food transport to Daxing difficult, Emperor Wen commissioned the official Yuwen Kai to construct the Guangtong Canal between Daxing and Tong Pass, parallel to the Wei River. This canal greatly facilitated the transport of food and supplies to the Guanzhong region. However, due to a famine in Guanzhong in the fall of 584, Emperor Wen briefly relocated to Luoyang.
In 586, the officials Liang Shiyan the Duke of Cheng, Yuwen Xin the Duke of Qi, and Liu Fang the Duke of Shu—all three of whom were friends of Emperor Wen but all of whom believed that they had been slighted by Emperor Wen—were accused of plotting rebellion, and all three were executed.
In spring 587, continuing his canal-building regime, Emperor Wen built the Shanyang Canal between the Yangtze River and the Huai River to improve the transport of material between those two rivers.
In the fall of 587, Emperor Wen summoned Emperor Jing of Western Liang to Chang'an, and Emperor Jing complied. However, while Emperor Jing was away, Emperor Wen, fearing that Jiangling would be poorly guarded, sent General Cui Hongdu to the city. Emperor Jing's uncle, Xiao Yan, the Prince of Anping, and Xiao Huan, the Prince of Yixing, mistakenly believed that Cui intended to attack, so they surrendered the city to Chen General Chen Huiji, who is also the cousin of Chen Emperor. In response, Emperor Wen abolished Western Liang, directly seizing its territory and making Emperor Jing the Duke of Ju. In the spring of 588, he publicly announced a campaign against Chen, with his son Yang Guang, along with Yang Jun, the Prince of Qin, and Yang Su in command, and Yang Guang as the overall leader. Gao Jiong was appointed as Yang Guang's assistant.
In the spring of 589, the Sui army captured the capital of Chen, Jiankang, and the Emperor of Chen was captivated. The Sui quickly gained control of the region, and Emperor Wen ordered the destruction of Jiankang, marking the end of the Northern and Southern dynasties period.