Iban people
The Iban are a Dayak sub-ethnic group native to Borneo, primarily found in the Malaysian state of Sarawak, Brunei and parts of West Kalimantan, Indonesia. They are one of the largest groups among the broader Dayak peoples, a term historically used to describe the indigenous communities of Borneo. The Iban are best known for their rich cultural traditions, which include distinctive practices in agriculture, music, weaving and social organisation.
Historically, the Iban were known for their warrior culture, particularly the practice of headhunting, which was a central element of their societal structure and spiritual beliefs until the early 20th century. The Iban's traditional social units are based around longhouses, which serve as communal living spaces for extended families. In terms of agriculture, the Iban have long practiced shifting cultivation, particularly of rice, as well as hunting and gathering.
The Iban trace their origins to the Kapuas basin in Kalimantan Barat, specifically the Ketungau tributary which is considered their ancestral land prior to their migration into the territory of modern-day Sarawak from the middle of the 16th century. Their migration was influenced by factors such as tribal conflict, territorial expansion and the search for fertile land. Central to their cultural and spiritual identity is Tembawai Tampun Juah, located in the Segumon region of Sanggau, West Kalimantan, which is considered the symbolic birthplace of the Iban people.
Under the colonial administration of the Brooke family in the 19th century, the Iban played an important role in military campaigns, where they were recruited as soldiers and contributed to the defense of Sarawak and later, Malaysia. Over time, their migratory culture extended beyond Borneo, leading to the establishment of visible diaspora communities in Peninsula Malaysia.
In the contemporary context, the Iban remain a prominent ethnic group in Sarawak, constituting 28.8% of the total population. Despite the influences of modernisation, they have preserved a strong cultural identity. The Iban continue to uphold traditional practices, including their language, Pua Kumbu weaving and ceremonial music, while also participating actively in the region's contemporary social and economic spheres.
Etymology
Before the establishment of the Raj of Sarawak in 1841, the term "Iban" was an exonym used by neighboring ethnic groups to describe the people who would later identify as Iban. At that time, the Iban did not commonly use the term "Iban" for themselves. Instead, they identified by the rivers they inhabited, such as Kami Saribas, Kami Skrang or Kami Sebuyau. In addition to river-based identifiers, the Iban also used names based on geographical areas, for instance, identifying themselves as the people of a particular locality. These identifiers were used to signify their regional and social affiliations, often reflecting their local settlements or areas of influence.The term "Iban" is commonly believed to have originated as a corruption of the Kayan word hivan, meaning "wanderer." The Kayan people, who lived in the upper reaches of the Rejang River, used the term disparagingly to refer to the Iban pioneers, whose restless nature and migration patterns made them unwelcome neighbors. This term remained largely confined to the Rejang area and was not known to other Dayak groups until the mid-1800s.
Prior to the 19th century, non-Malay indigenous groups in Borneo were often grouped together under the term "Dyaks" or "Dayaks" by outsiders, including Westerners and the Brooke administration. The term was used to describe various indigenous groups, though it was not specific to any one ethnic group. James Brooke, the first Rajah of Sarawak, coined the term "Sea Dayak" to distinguish the Iban from the "Land Dayaks". This distinction reflected the Iban's more mobile, riverine lifestyle in contrast to the more settled, agricultural lifestyle of other Dayak groups.
The name "Iban" became more widely accepted by the group over time, particularly after World War II. Despite its origins as an outsider's term, the word "Iban" has been embraced by the people themselves and is now the commonly used term to refer to the group, especially in Sarawak.
History
Pre-19th century: early origin and cultural development
The Iban people have a rich indigenous historical tradition, passed down primarily through oral literature, written records on Papan Turai and cultural practices. These sources preserve important details about the Iban's historical migration and settlement.A central aspect of Iban identity is their deep connection to their ancestral homeland, reflected in both their spiritual beliefs and historical narratives. One key site in this regard is Tembawai Tampun Juah, located in the Segumon region of Sanggau, West Kalimantan, Indonesia. According to Iban oral traditions, Tembawai Tampun Juah is considered the first settlement of the Iban people, symbolising their journey after being separated from their ancestral figures. This site remains culturally and historically significant, embodying the Iban's connection to their land and heritage.
In addition to the spiritual significance of Tembawai Tampun Juah, the Iban trace their geographical origins to the Kapuas region in West Kalimantan, specifically the Ketungau tributary, which is traditionally regarded as the birthplace of early Iban leaders and communities. From the middle of the sixteenth century, the Iban began migrating to Sarawak due to tribal conflicts and the search for fertile land. Key locations along their migration included Melanjan in the Kapuas Valley, Pangkalan Tubau near the Kalimantan-Sarawak border, and Lubok Antu, their first major settlement in Sarawak. While Tembawai Tampun Juah represents their mythic origins, the Kapuas River region is considered the historical starting point of their migration. Key locations along their migration route include Melanjan in the Kapuas Valley, Pangkalan Tubau near the Kalimantan-Sarawak border and Lubok Antu, their first major settlement in Sarawak. The migration narrative highlights influential figures such as Lau Moa, a migration leader and ancestral chiefs like Ambau, Mawar Biak and Mawar Tuai, who are said to have guided the Iban to their new territories. This migration story is preserved in the Papan Turai and Iban oral traditions, which continue to hold a central place in Iban cultural identity.
A pivotal figure in the Iban migration narrative is Sengalang Burung, who holds an important place in Iban oral traditions. According to these traditions, Sengalang Burung and his followers initially settled along the Kapuas River in southwestern Borneo. His grandson, Sera Gunting, later led the Iban further westward into the Tiang Laju Range, now part of Sarawak. It is said that at Merakai, a tributary of the Kapuas River, Sengalang Burung convened a council with his followers to plan their migration to Batang Ai, a region that would become a major center of Iban settlement.
The historical timeline of the Iban migration has been further supported by the work of Benedict Sandin, who suggested that the Iban began their migration from the Kapuas Hulu region in the 1550s. The first group of settlers moved into the Batang Lupar area, establishing a community near the Undop River. Over the course of five generations, the Iban expanded their settlements further west, east and north, founding new communities along the Batang Lupar, Batang Sadong, Saribas, and Batang Layar rivers.
Modern linguistic studies, such as those conducted by Asmah Haji Omar, Rahim Aman, Chong Shin and James T. Collins, as well as material culture research by M. Heppell, also support the claim that the Iban language and culture have their roots in the upper Kapuas region. These studies trace the development of the Iban people to this area, reinforcing the historical narratives preserved in oral and written forms.
19th century: migration, colonialism and socio-political changes
The 19th century marked a crucial period in Iban history, particularly with the arrival of the Brooke family and the establishment of the Raj of Sarawak. This era significantly impacted Iban society, influencing their social, economic and political structures. The period also witnessed large-scale migration that helped consolidate the Iban as one of the dominant ethnic groups in Sarawak today. The expansion of the Iban was not merely a physical relocation, but also a cultural and demographic shift, with their customs, language and traditions spreading throughout the western Borneo region.During this period, the Iban encountered various hunting and gathering societies, as well as some agricultural communities. The presence of the Iban often resulted in the assimilation or displacement of these groups. While some of the original inhabitants were incorporated into Iban society, others were either destroyed or forced to leave their traditional territories.
By the early 1800s, the Iban began migrating into the Rejang River basin, which is now divided into Sarawak's Third, Sixth, and Seventh Divisions. These early migrants primarily came from the northern tributaries of the Batang Lupar and Saribas rivers, moving southward into the Rejang's southern tributaries. Others, from the upper Batang Lupar, traveled through the Leboyan and Kanyau rivers, eventually reaching the Katibas River, a tributary of the Rejang in central Sarawak.
The Brooke administration played a key role in facilitating Iban migration during Sarawak's territorial expansion, which helped establish the Iban as a dominant ethnic group in the region. James Brooke, a British adventurer, arrived in Borneo in 1838 at the request of the Sultan of Brunei to suppress a rebellion. After his success, he was appointed Rajah of Sarawak in 1841, where he focused on controlling piracy and regulating indigenous practices like headhunting, which were common among the Dayak groups, including the Iban.
Brooke's most significant opposition came from Rentap, a prominent Dayak leader. Brooke led three military expeditions against Rentap, culminating in Rentap's defeat at the Battle of Sadok Hill. Throughout these campaigns, Brooke relied heavily on local Dayak soldiers, famously stating, "Only Dayaks can kill Dayaks," underscoring both his dependence on local fighters and the complex dynamics of colonial military alliances. In 1851, Brooke faced accusations of excessive force against the Dayak people, allegedly under the pretext of anti-piracy operations. This led to a Commission of Inquiry in 1854, which cleared him of any wrongdoing. Despite the controversy, Brooke continued to employ Dayak soldiers in various military campaigns, against the Chinese-led uprising of Liu Shan Bang and local Malay resistance movements led by Syarif Masahor.
By 1870, large populations of Iban were reported to have established settlements along the Oya and Mukah Rivers. In the early 20th century, Iban migration extended further to regions such as Tatau, Bintulu, Balingian and the northern parts of Sarawak, including the Limbang River and Baram Valley.
As Iban populations grew, local resources came under strain, particularly in areas practicing traditional swidden agriculture. To manage this, the Brooke administration imposed migration restrictions to prevent overpopulation and resource depletion, leading to tensions in regions like the Balleh Valley. However, the government also encouraged Iban settlement in newly annexed territories, recognizing their expertise in resource management, including the exploitation of rattan, camphor, damar and wild rubber. Government-supported migration was encouraged in regions such as Limbang and Baram.
By the late 1800s, as areas like Batang Lupar, Skrang Valley, and Batang Ai became overcrowded, the Brooke government facilitated Iban migration to less populated areas. Iban from regions like Simanggang, Batang Lupar, and the Second Division were encouraged to settle in places like Bintulu, Baram, Lundu, and Limbang.
This migration played a crucial role in spreading Iban language, culture, and agricultural practices throughout Sarawak. However, it also led to social and political changes, such as the assimilation of the Bukitan people in Batang Lupar and the Lugat people through intermarriage. In other areas, including those inhabited by the Ukits, Seru, Miriek and Biliun, Iban migration led to violent conflicts and the near-total annihilation of these indigenous populations.