SPEAKING
In sociolinguistics, SPEAKING or the SPEAKING model, is a model socio-linguistic study developed by Dell Hymes. Hymes developed this model as part of a new methodology referred to as the ethnography of speaking. This model is a tool to assist the identification and labeling of components of interactional linguistics that was driven by his view that, in order to speak a language correctly, one needs not only to learn its vocabulary and grammar, but also the context in which words are used. In essence, learning the components of the SPEAKING model is essential for linguistic competence.
To facilitate the application of his representation, Hymes constructed the mnemonic, S-P-E-A-K-I-N-G under which he grouped the sixteen components within eight divisions.
The model has sixteen components that can be applied to many sorts of discourse: message form; message content; setting; scene; speaker/sender; addressor; hearer/receiver/audience; addressee; purposes ; purposes ; key; channels; forms of speech; norms of interaction; norms of interpretation; and genres.
The SPEAKING model is used by linguistic anthropologists to analyze speech events as part of an ethnographies. This approach can be used to understand relationships and power dynamics within a given speech community and provide insight on cultural values.
Divisions
Setting and scene
"Setting refers to the time and place of a speech act and, in general, to the physical circumstances". The living room in the grandparents' home might be a setting for a family story. Scene is the "psychological setting" or "cultural definition" of a scene, including characteristics such as range of formality and sense of play or seriousness. The family story may be told at a reunion celebrating the grandparents' anniversary. At times, the family would be festive and playful; at other times, serious and commemorative.Setting and scene also refer to the implicit rules and expectations surrounding the speech event. The setting of the speech event determines who should speak and who should not, what type of speech is appropriate, and when interrupting is acceptable. For example, speech events in the classroom have particular implicit rules for the speaking teachers and listening students, certain words are not viewed as appropriate in the classroom, and interrupting is often met with consequences. Conversely, different implicit rules and expectations apply at social gatherings and work settings.
The setting of the speech event also refers to the location of participants and any physical barriers that may be present. For instance, whether participants are facing one another, what body language they are exhibiting, and whether or not they are separated by a table, chairs, or space in the room. Documentation of the physical setting is especially useful for completing an ethnography of a given community.
Participants
Participants include the speaker and the audience. Linguistic anthropologists will make distinctions within these categories. The audience may include those to whom the speech act is directed, and those who are not addressed but overhear. For example, at the family reunion, an aunt might tell a story to the young female relatives, but males, although not addressed, might also hear the narrative.When considering the participants in a speech event, one should consider the implicit and explicit rules about who is, can, and should be involved; what expectations are established for the participants; who is speaking and who is being addressed. Certain ideologies are at play regarding participants in speech events. For example, cultural norms about how children should speak to adults, how ladies should speak around men, or how employees should speak to their boss. Each participant in a speech event is operating with specific rules and expectations, which are important for linguistic competence.
Ends
The ends of a speech event are its purposes, goals, and outcomes. The aunt may tell a story about the grandmother to entertain the audience, teach the young women, and honor the grandmother. Additionally, the ends of a speech event may differ for those participating. Harriet Joseph Ottenheimer provides an example of a tourist seeking directions and a New Yorker providing vague answers, "your goal may be to get information and get to your destination, but their goal is to appear knowledgeable." Differences in the ends of speech events can happen often, especially in classrooms and workplaces. Similarities and differences in the ends of speech events are important for successful communication and acceptance of an individual into a culture or a speech community.Act sequence
Act sequence refers to the sequence of speech acts that make up a speech event. The order of speech acts greatly influences the speech event. The initial speech acts set the tone for the conversation. Beginning a lecture by saying, "Ladies and gentlemen...", sets a different tone than by saying, "Hello! How is everyone today?"The act sequence of an event also orients the participants to social cues. Important aspects of an act sequence include turn-taking and interrupting. For example, an aunt's story might begin as a response to a toast to the grandmother; the story's plot and development would have a sequence structured by the aunt. Possibly, there might be a collaborative interruption during the telling. Finally, the group might applaud the tale and move onto another subject or activity.
Key
"Key" refers to the clues that establish the "tone, manner, or spirit" of the speech act. The aunt might imitate the grandmother's voice and gestures in a playful way, or she might address the group in a serious voice, emphasizing the sincerity and respect of the praise the story expresses. Generally, different keys are used in different situations. For instance, different tones are used at birthday parties and funerals. Intonation in sentences can provide additional meaning; lighter tones communicate humor and friendship, while monotone speech acts communicate seriousness or a lack of emotion. Similarly, keys can be formal or informal, and can be influenced by word choice. Informal keys include the use of contractions, use of slang or profanity, condensed or loose pronunciations, missing infinitives, and prepositional endings. Overall, the key of the speech act adds a human element to communication and provides valuable information for informing social norms and expectations for the speech event. Proper application of the appropriate key in a speech event is vital for linguistic competence.Instrumentalities
Instrumentalities are the channels used to complete the speech act. These include the method of communication, the language, dialect and register. Hymes described these instrumentalities generally as the Forms and styles of speech. For example, the instrumentality of the spoken word is different from the written word; the language spoken is unique to the speech act, as is the dialect. Similarly, the register that is used influences the speech event. For example, an aunt might speak in a casual register with many dialect features, but if her niece continues the conversation in a more formal register with standard grammatical forms, the conversation may seem awkward.Norms
Norms are the social rules governing the speech event and the participants' actions and reactions. In a playful story by the aunt, the norms may allow many audience interruptions and collaboration; and, possibly, those interruptions may be limited to participation by older females. A serious, formal story by the aunt might call for attention to her and no interruptions as norms.Norms will vary for each speech community. Examples of questions regarding established norms include:
- When is it okay to speak?
- Who should listen?
- When is silence preferred?
- How loud is too loud?
- What speed should be used in the conversation?
- What topics are acceptable?