Pulahan
The Pulahan, also known as dios-dios, were the members of a religious revival of Philippine beliefs that developed in the Visayas prior to the Philippine Revolution. At its peak, it numbered around 10,000–15,000 adherents. The movement was severely crippled during the Philippine Revolution after the Philippine Constabulary took over patrols in Samar, when the U.S. military declared the island as "pacified".
Description
Pulahanes practiced a syncretic religious revival centered mostly on Philippine mythology and Folk Catholicism. Individual beliefs include the anting-antings as well as the revival of the babaylan. Indigenous fighting techniques such as eskrima were also used in the elite and ferocious combat style. They practiced a form indigenous martial arts called Derobio Eskrima and they specialize using a heavy, crescent-shaped bolo knife in their battles. Religious rituals using bottles of holy oil, prayer books such as the Bible, consecrated anting-anting, as blessings before battles.Americans have described Pulahanes as notorious fighters and are experts in hand-to-hand combat. War cries were also common among their fighters. They have also been described as lacking in strategy due to their high casualty figures in battles such as the Massacre at Dolores. They were the subject of many laws passed during the early American colonial period and have often been accused of banditry. George Curry, Governor of Samar, wrote about the Pulahan in a 1907 report: "...Pulahanes are nearly all ignorant, superstitious persons, and are easily influenced for good or for evil. It is therefore necessary that they be closely watched and brought under our influence, to the end that within a few years they may no longer have the desire to lead a wild and lawless life. They are not naturally bad people, and I know that they can be reclaimed to civilization if brought under the influences mentioned above. Missionaries are badly needed for these people. They are all naturally religious and a good priest could exercise more influence over them than anyone else. "
History
The 19th century saw the rise of the dios-dios "shamans". Dios-dios were religious leaders so named because of their penchant for identifying themselves with Christian religious figures. They led cult-like religious movements, promising prosperity, supernatural powers, or healing to their followers. Most were mere charlatans selling amulets and magical pieces of paper. Their members were mostly from the illiterate rural poor who had little knowledge of formal Catholic teachings and were living in extreme poverty under colonial rule. The dios-dios movement was initially purely religious.There are numerous examples of dios-dios leaders in the 19th century. They include Lungao, a healer from Ilocos who claimed he was Jesus Christ in 1811; Ignacio Dimas, who led the "Tres Cristos" of Libmanan, Nueva Cáceres who claimed they had supernatural powers over diseases in 1865; Benedicta, an old woman and a healer who called herself "La Santa de Leyte" in 1862 and prophesied that the island of Leyte would sink; Clara Tarrosa, an eighty-year-old babaylan in Tigbauan, Iloilo in the late 1880s who proclaimed herself the Virgin Mary and isolated herself and her followers from Spanish rule; Francisco Gonzalez of Jaro, Leyte who claimed in 1888 that he was a king sent to save people from another great flood by leading them to a city that would rise from the waves; and many more. These movements were usually suppressed by the Spanish by imprisoning their leaders or exiling them.
Dios-Dios Rebellions of the 19th century
The movement began in 1887, when Ponciano Elofre the Cabeza de Barangay of Zamboanguita, Negros Oriental, failed to collect all the taxes from his constituents. As a response Spanish soldiers beat his father, Cris Elofre, to death to teach him a lesson. Thereafter, he rallied the people against the forced payment of taxes to the Spanish government. His movement would soon incorporate religious freedom, as well as the celebration of the ancient rites of the babaylan, with the intention of reviving aspects of Philippine mythology. He renamed himself as Dios Buhawi and proclaimed himself the savior of the people. Emulating the ancient asog shamans, he dressed in women's clothing and assumed feminine mannerisms even though he was married to a woman. He claimed supernatural powers much like the ancient dalagangan. He called his followers "Pulahanes", who numbered about 2,000 and would regularly attack Spanish-controlled towns. Despite its momentum, the movement was unable to achieve its goals. The activities of Elofre so alarmed the Spanish colonial government that Governor-General Valeriano Weyler sent 500 men of the Guardia Civil and a battleship to Negros to deal with the threat. On 22 August 1887, Elofre raided Siaton, the town adjoining Zamboanguita, and was killed in the encounter with colonial forces. His wife, Flaviana Tubigan, and relatives attempted to continue the movement, but they were eventually captured and exiled by Spanish authorities. They were succeeded by Ka Martin de la Cruz, of Tolong in southern Negros Oriental, Elofre's lieutenant. De la Cruz' command of the babaylanes degenerated into banditry. When the Spanish authorities failed in their bid to capture him, on 11 September 1893, de la Cruz was killed in a trap laid by his own mistress, Alfonsa Alaidan. The remaining Buhawi followers, were later recruited by Papa Isio when he began to organize his own group of babaylanes in another revolt against Spain.File:"Papa Isio" .jpg|thumb|Papa Isio with two babaylanes followers in a prison in Bacolod after his surrender to American authorities in 1907. Note his "Papal vestments" and the woman's dress worn by the man to his left.
The last significant dios-dios rebellion in the 19th century was led by Dionisio Magbuelas, better known as Papa Isio, meaning "Pope Isio". Papa Isio was a son of migrants from Panay. By 1880 at 34 years old, he was involved in a scuffle with a Spaniard. Fearing reprisal from the colonial government, he fled to the mountains, where he met Dios Buhawi, leader of the Pulahanes. He joined the Dios Buhawi group. In 1896 Papa Isio organized his own babaylanes group from remnants of Buhawi's followers, in Himamaylan, Negros Occidental. During his leadership, the movement would become more organized and he led a new revolt beginning in Himamaylan. The movement would continue until the Philippine Revolution in August 1898. During this era, the movement rapidly gained adherents and began setting up base camp on the slopes of Mount Kanlaon. Soon, they began to have sympathy for the Katipunan, and entered a pact with Aniceto Lacson and Juan Araneta, leaders of the Katipunan-affiliated Negros Revolution. After the formation of the Republic of Negros in November 1898, tensions began to arise with their new allies. This led to a boiling point when the leaders of this republic signed a treaty with the United States. Papa Isio immediately withdrew his allegiance from this government and began his new offensive. After the Philippines was ceded to the United States after the Spanish–American War, Papa Isio was initially made "military chief" of La Castellana, Negros Occidental under the American government. However, he picked up armed resistance again in 1899 during the Philippine–American War. His movement ended on 6 August 1907, when Papa Isio surrendered to American authorities and was sentenced to death. This was later commuted to life imprisonment and he died in the Manila Bilibid Prison in 1911.
Another dios-dios uprising was led by a shaman named Gregorio Lampinio in Antique from 1888. The uprising was formed near Mount Balabago, a sacred pilgrimage site for shamans. Lampinio led a force of around 400 people. They collected contribuciones babaylanes, disseminated anti-colonial ideas, and launched attacks on towns in Antique and Iloilo. The group was eventually suppressed by the Guardia Civil by 1890.