Principles of war


Principles of war are rules and guidelines that represent truths in the practice of war and military operations.
The earliest known principles of war were documented by Sun Tzu, as well as Chanakya in his Arthashastra. Machiavelli published his "General Rules" in 1521 which were themselves modeled on Vegetius' Regulae bellorum generales. Henri, Duke of Rohan established his "Guides" for war in 1644. Marquis de Silva presented his "Principles" for war in 1778. Henry Lloyd proffered his version of "Rules" for war in 1781 as well as his "Axioms" for war in 1781. Then in 1805, Antoine-Henri Jomini published his "Maxims" for war version 1, "Didactic Resume" and "Maxims" for war version 2. Carl von Clausewitz wrote his version in 1812 building on the work of earlier writers.
There are no universally agreed-upon principles of war. The principles of warfare are tied into military doctrine of the various military services. Doctrine, in turn, suggests but does not dictate strategy and tactics.

Historical principles

Arthashastra

is an ancient Indian Sanskrit treatise on statecraft and military strategy among other things.

Biblical

The Book of Deuteronomy prescribes how the Israelite army was to fight, including dealing with plunder, enslavement of the enemy women and children and forbidding the destruction of fruit-bearing trees.

Sun Tzu

's The Art of War, written, listed five basic factors for a commander to consider:
  • The Moral Law, or discipline and unity of command
  • Heaven, or weather factors
  • Earth, or the terrain
  • The Commander;
  • Method and discipline, which included logistics and supply
However, Sun Tzu implied individual initiative as a principle of warfare, stating "According as circumstances are favorable, one should
modify one's plans."

Napoleon Bonaparte

Since the first appearance in English of the military maxims of Napoleon Bonaparte in 1831, all English translations have relied upon the extremely incomplete French edition of General Burnod
published in 1827.
This has contributed to the erroneous belief that Napoléon Bonaparte had pioneered the "Principles of War". Napoléon was a keen follower of famous military generals of the past, who influenced his thoughts greatly. Albeit, "The armies of today are based on the organization created by Napoleon for his Grand Army and it has been used ever since.". Since the mid-19th century, due to the influence of the Prussian army, the maxims have become a guide for many military organizations to focus the thinking of military commanders and political leaders toward concepts and methods of successful prosecution of wars and smaller military operations. Although originally concerned with strategy, grand strategy and tactics, due to the changing nature of warfare and military technology, since the interwar period, the principles are largely applied to the strategic decision-making, and in some cases, to operational mobility of forces.

Carl von Clausewitz

The principles of war identified by Carl von Clausewitz in his essay Principles of War, and later enlarged in his book, On War, have been influential in military thinking in the North Atlantic region.
The initial essay dealt with the tactics of combat, and suggested the following general principles:
  • discover how we may gain a preponderance of physical forces and material advantages at the decisive point
  • to calculate moral factors
  • make the best use of the few means at our disposal
  • never lack calmness and firmness...without this firm resolution, no great results can be achieved in the most successful war
  • always have the choice between the most audacious and the most careful solution...no military leader has ever become great without audacity
Based on the above, Clausewitz went on to suggest principles for tactics, the scale of combat that dominated European warfare at the time:
  • The Defence
  • The Offense
  • The Use of Troops
  • The Use Of Terrain
  • forces are more effective in a concentric rather than in a parallel attack; attack concentrically without having decisive superiority in an engagement
  • always seek to envelop that part of the enemy against which we direct our main attack
  • cut off the enemy from his line of retreat
Clausewitz also included in the essay general principles of strategy by saying that Warfare has three main objects:
  • To conquer and destroy the armed power of the enemy; always direct our principal operation against the main body of the enemy army or at least against an important portion of his forces
  • To take possession of his material and other sources of strength, and to direct our operations against the places where most of these resources are concentrated
  • To gain public opinion, won through great victories and the occupation of the enemy's capital
  • use our entire force with the utmost energy
  • the decisive point of attack
  • never to waste time
  • surprise plays a much greater role in tactics than in strategy
  • pursuit
  • forces concentrated at the main point
  • an attack on the lines of communication takes effect only very slowly, while victory on the field of battle bears fruit immediately
  • In strategy, therefore, the side that is surrounded by the enemy is better off than the side which surrounds its opponent, especially with equal or even weaker forces
  • To cut the enemy's line of retreat, however, strategic envelopment or a turning movement is very effective
  • be physically and morally superior
  • stores of supplies, on whose preservation operations absolutely depend
  • The provisioning of troops is a necessary condition of warfare and thus has great influence on the operations
  • independent action
Strategic Defense
  • Politically speaking defensive war is a war which we wage for our independence
Strategic Offense
  • The strategic offensive pursues the aim of the war directly, aiming straight at the destruction of the enemy's forces

    Jomini

in his book, Precis de l'Art de Guerre, published in 1838, also developed theories of warfare based on the concepts and methods used during the Napoleonic Wars.

Ardant du Picq

Colonel Ardant du Picq, a French infantry officer who was killed in the Franco-Prussian War, prepared drafts based on his observations of military history which became the book Battle Studies. In it two of Du Picq's observations stand out:
  • Combat is the object, the cause of being, and the supreme manifestation of an army and must be the focus of training, even in peacetime.
  • The human element is more important than theories. War is still more of an art than a science.

    20th century theory

Applied to specific forms of warfare, such as naval warfare, Julian Corbett argued that maritime strategy should play a significant role in the principles of war. Admiral William S. Sims, who commanded the U.S. Navy's contribution to the British Grand Fleet in World War I, wrote of the U.S. Naval War College:

The college aims to supply principles, not rules, and by training, develop the habit of applying these principles logically, correctly, and rapidly to each situation that may arise.
This habit can be acquired only through considerable practice, hence the numerous problems in strategy and tactics.

National principles of war

Variations exist and differences are minor and semantic or reflect a cultural persuasion for a particular approach. A closer examination of the values and culture of origin reveals its war priorities.

UK

The UK uses 10 principles of war, as taught to all officers of the Royal Navy, British Army, and Royal Air Force:
The British Army's principles of war were first published after the First World War and based on the work of the British general and military theorist, J. F. C. Fuller. The definition of each principle has been refined over the following decades and adopted throughout the British armed forces. The tenth principle, added later, was originally called Administration. The first principle has always been stated as pre-eminent and the second is usually considered more important than the remainder, which are not listed in any order of importance.
The 2011 edition of British Defence Doctrine states and explains the principles with the following preface: "Principles of War guide commanders and their staffs in the planning and conduct of warfare. They are enduring, but not immutable, absolute or prescriptive, and provide an appropriate foundation for all military activity. The relative importance of each may vary according to context; their application requires judgement, common sense and intelligent interpretation. Commanders also need to take into account the legitimacy of their actions, based on the legal, moral, political, diplomatic and ethical propriety of the conduct of military forces, once committed."
The ten principles as listed and defined in the 2011 edition, unchanged from the 2008 edition, of BDD are:
  • Selection and Maintenance of the Aim – A single, unambiguous aim is the keystone of successful military operations. Selection and maintenance of the aim is regarded as the master principle of war.
  • Maintenance of Morale – Morale is a positive state of mind derived from inspired political and military leadership, a shared sense of purpose and values, well-being, perceptions of worth and group cohesion.
  • Offensive Action – Offensive action is the practical way in which a commander seeks to gain advantage, sustain momentum and seize the initiative.
  • Security – Security is the provision and maintenance of an operating environment that affords the necessary freedom of action, when and where required, to achieve objectives.
  • Surprise – Surprise is the consequence of shock and confusion induced by the deliberate or incidental introduction of the unexpected.
  • Concentration of Force – Concentration of force involves the decisive, synchronized application of superior fighting power to realize intended effects, when and where required.
  • Economy of Effort – Economy of effort is the judicious exploitation of manpower, materiel and time in relation to the achievement of objectives.
  • Flexibility – the ability to change readily to meet new circumstances – comprises agility, responsiveness, resilience, acuity and adaptability.
  • Cooperation – Cooperation entails the incorporation of teamwork and a sharing of dangers, burdens, risks and opportunities in every aspect of warfare.
  • Sustainability – To sustain a force is to generate the means by which its fighting power and freedom of action are maintained.
These principles of war are commonly used by the armed forces of Commonwealth countries such as Australia.