Papal appointment

Papal appointment was a medieval method of selecting the Pope. Popes have always been selected by a council of Church fathers; however, Papal selection before 1059 was often characterized by confirmation or nomination by secular European rulers or by the preceding pope. The later procedures of the Papal conclave are in large part designed to prohibit interference of secular rulers, which to some extent characterized the first millennium of the Roman Catholic Church, e. g. in practices such as the creation of crown-cardinals and the claimed but invalid jus exclusivae. Appointment may have taken several forms, with a variety of roles for the laity and civic leaders, Byzantine and Germanic emperors, and noble Roman families. The role of the election vis-a-vis the general population and the clergy was prone to vary considerably, with a nomination carrying weight that ranged from nearly determinative to merely suggestive, or as ratification of a concluded election.
The practice originated in late antiquity, where on many occasions the Roman Emperor stepped in to resolve disputes over the legitimacy of Papal contenders. An important precedent from this period is an edict of Emperor Honorius, issued after a synod he convoked to depose Antipope Eulalius. The practice passed to, and grew with, the King of the Ostrogoths, and then the Byzantine Emperor. After an interregnum, the Kings of the Franks and the Holy Roman Emperor, generally assumed the role of confirming Papal elections. For a period, today known as the "saeculum obscurum", the practice passed from the Emperor to powerful Roman nobles—the Crescentii and then the Counts of Tusculum.
In many cases, the Papal coronation was delayed until the election had been confirmed. Some antipopes were similarly, putatively, appointed. The practice ended with the conclusion of the Investiture Controversy due largely to the efforts of Cardinal Hildebrand, the future Pope Gregory VII, who was a guiding force in the selection of his four predecessors, and the 1059 Papal bull In Nomine Domini of Pope Nicholas II; some writers consider this practice to be an extreme form of "investiture" in and of itself.
Although the practice was forbidden by the Council of Antioch and the Council of Rome, the Bishops of Rome, as with other bishops, often exercised great control over selection of their successors, even after the sixth century. In addition, most popes of the fourth to twelfth centuries were nominated or confirmed by a secular power.

Ancient Rome

As to the earliest ages, St. Peter himself constituted a senate for the Roman Church, consisting of twenty-four priests and deacons. These were the councillors of the Bishop of Rome and the electors of his successors. This statement is drawn from a canon in the "Corpus Juris Canonici". Historians and canonists, however, generally hold that the Roman bishopric was filled on its vacancy in the same manner as other bishoprics, that is, the election of the new pope was made by the neighbouring bishops and the clergy and faithful of Rome. Nevertheless, some maintain that the naming of the successor of St. Peter was restricted to the Roman clergy, and that the people were admitted to a part in the elections only after the time of Sylvester I.
After Constantine had given peace to the Church, the Christian Roman emperors often took part in the institution of a new pope and at times their influence was very marked. From the fourth century onwards, therefore, a new force had to be reckoned with. The occasion for the interference of the Roman emperors and later of the kings of Italy was afforded by disputed elections to the papal chair. The most noted of the earlier instance was at the election of Boniface I. This gave occasion to the decree that when an election was disputed a new candidate should be chosen.

Ostrogoths

On November 22, 498, both Pope Symmachus and Antipope Laurentius were elected pope; both Byzantine Emperor Anastasius I and the Gothic King Theodoric the Great originally supported Laurentius, who was installed in the Lateran Palace, but Symmachus prevailed when Theodoric expelled Laurentius from Rome, fearing that he was too influenced by the Byzantine ruler.

Appointer	Pope	Pontificate	Notes
Theodoric the Great/Athalaric	Felix IV	July 13, 526 – September 22, 530	"On Theodoric's recommendation, Felix was elected pope, and his election was confirmed by Athalaric, the successor of Theodoric" Appointed "for all practical purposes" by Theodoric
Pope Felix IV/Athalaric	Boniface II	September 17, 530 – October 532	Appointment meant to avoid split between "Byzantine" and "Gothic" factions
Athalaric	John II	January 2, 533 – May 8, 535	During the sede vacante of over two months, "shameless trafficking in sacred things was indulged in. Even sacred vessels were exposed for sale. The matter was brought before the Senate, and before the Arian Ostrogothic Court at Ravenna"
Theodahad	Agapetus I	May 13, 535 – April 22, 536	"Theodahad was well placed to coerce the new pope Agapetus, for he had been elected with his support"
Theodahad	Silverius	June 8, 536 – June 20, 537	Legitimate son of Pope Hormisdas

Byzantine

Appointer	Pope	Pontificate	Notes
Justinian I	Vigilius	March 29, 537 – 555	Previously appointed by his successor Pope Boniface II
Justinian I	Pelagius I	April 16, 556 – March 4, 561	"Pelagius, as the nominee of Justinian, at once succeeded on his arrival in Rome, but most of the clergy, suspecting his orthodoxy, and believing him to have had some share in the unlooked-for removal of his predecessor, shunned his fellowship, and only two bishops and presbyter could be got to take part in his ordination to the pontificate"
Justinian I	John III	July 17, 561 – July 13, 574	"At the death of Pelagius I, Rome had been under Byzantine control for many years, and according to the procedure imposed by Constantinople, the name of the elected candidate had to be submitted to the emperor for approval. This explains the long vacancy "
Justin II	Benedict I	June 2, 575 – June 30, 579	"The ravages of the Lombards rendered it very difficult to communicate with the emperor at Constantinople, who claimed the privilege of confirming the election of the popes. Hence there was a vacancy of nearly eleven months between the death of John III and the arrival of the imperial confirmation of Benedict's election, 2 June, 575."
Tiberius II Constantine	Pelagius II	November 26, 579 – February 7, 590	"He succeeded Benedict I, when the Lombards were besieging Rome, but his consecration was delayed in the hope of securing the confirmation of the election by the emperor. But the blockade of Rome by the Lombards, and their control of the great thoroughfares was effective and, after four months, he was consecrated."
Maurice	Gregory I	September 3, 590 – March 12, 604	"The choice of a successor lay with the clergy and people of Rome, and without any hesitation they elected Gregory wrote personally to the Emperor Maurice, begging him with all earnestness not to confirm the election. Germanus, prefect of the city, suppresses this letter, however, and sent instead of it the formal schedule of the election. In the interval while awaiting the emperor's reply the business of the vacant see was transacted by Gregory At length, after six months of waiting, came the emperor's confirmation of Gregory's election."
Phocas	Sabinian	September 13, 604 – February 22, 606	" chosen to succeed Gregory soon after the death of that great pontiff; but as the imperial confirmation of his election did not arrive for some months, he was not consecrated till September."
Phocas	Boniface III	February 19, 607 – November 12, 607	" as apocrisiarius, or legate, to the court of Constantinople, where, by his tact and prudence, he appears to have gained the favourable regard of the Emperor Phocas"
Phocas	Boniface IV	August 25, 608 – May 8, 615	"Boniface obtained leave from the Emperor Phocas "
Heraclius	Severinus	October 638 – August 2, 640	"Severinus was elected and envoys were at once sent to Constantinople, to obtain the confirmation of his election. But the emperor, instead of granting the confirmation, ordered Severinus to sign his Ecthesis This the pope-elect refused to do Meanwhile his envoys at Constantinople, finally secured the imperial confirmation."

Exarchate of Ravenna

Byzantine

Exarchate of Ravenna

Frankish interregnum

Kings of the Franks/Holy Roman Empire

Counts of Tusculum

Appointer	Pope	Pontificate	Notes
Marozia, Senatrix of Rome	Sergius III	January 29, 904 – April 14, 911	Mistress of Marozia
Marozia, Senatrix of Rome	John X	March 914 – May 928	Appointed and then deposed by Marozia
Marozia, Senatrix of Rome	Leo VI	May 928 – December 928
Marozia, Senatrix of Rome	Stephen VII	December 928 – February 931
Marozia, Senatrix of Rome	John XI	February/March 931 – December 935	Illegitimate son of Pope Sergius III and Marozia, and half-brother of Alberic II
Alberic II of Spoleto, Senator of Rome	Leo VII	3 January 936 – 13 July 939	Cooperated with Henry I and Otto I
Alberic II of Spoleto, Senator of Rome	Marinus II	October 30, 942 – May 946	" he was one of the popes placed on the throne of St. Peter by the power of Alberic, Prince of the Romans "
Alberic II of Spoleto, Senator of Rome	Agapetus II	May 10, 946 – December 955	"The temporal power had practically vanished and Rome was ruled by the vigorous Princeps and Senator Albericht, who was the prototype of the later Italian tyrants."
Alberic II of Spoleto, Senator of Rome	John XII	December 16, 955 – May 14, 964	Son of Alberic II "During his lifetime, his successor was virtually appointed in the person of Albericht's notorious son Octavian, later John XII, whose father forced the Romans to swear that they would elect him as their temporal and spiritual lord upon the demise of Agapetus."