Metronome
A metronome is a device that produces an audible click or other sound at a uniform interval that can be set by the user, typically in beats per minute. Metronomes may also include synchronized visual motion, such as a swinging pendulum or a blinking light. Musicians—and others including dancers, athletes, and health professionals—often practise with a metronome to improve their timing, especially the ability to maintain a steady tempo with a regular beat or pulse. Composers and conductors often use numerical metronome markings to communicate their preferred tempos to musicians preparing for a performance.
A type of metronome was among the inventions of the Andalusian polymath Abbas ibn Firnas. In 1815, the German inventor Johann Maelzel patented a mechanical, wind-up metronome as a tool for musicians, under the title "Instrument/Machine for the Improvement of all Musical Performance, called Metronome". In the 20th century, electronic metronomes and software metronomes were invented.
When interpreting emotion and other qualities in music, performers seldom play exactly on every beat. In a musically expressive performance, the pulse generally does not align with the clicks of a metronome. This has led some musicians to criticize use of a metronome, because "musical time is replaced by clock time".
Etymology
The word metronome first appeared in English in Maelzel's 1815 patent application, and is Greek in origin, derived from metron—"measure" and nomos—"regulation, law". The London patent refers to the machine as "a metronome or musical time-keeper".History and types
Mechanical metronomes
Historical credit for the mechanical metronome is spread across Spanish, Italian, French, Dutch and German contributors.According to the historian Lynn Townsend White Jr., the Andalusian inventor Abbas Ibn Firnas created "some sort of metronome" in the 9th century. Galileo Galilei studied and discovered key concepts involving the pendulum in the late 16th and early 17th centuries, famously inspired by a steadily swaying chandelier in Pisa Cathedral. In 1696, musician Étienne Loulié built a pendulum-based "chronomètre", consisting of a lead weight hanging from an adjustable string alongside a vertical ruler. However, his design produced no sound, and did not have an escapement mechanism to keep the pendulum in motion. To get the correct tempo with this type of visual device, a musician would need to watch the pendulum as if watching a conductor's baton.
The more familiar mechanical musical chronometre was invented by Dietrich Nikolaus Winkel in Amsterdam in 1814, based on a spring-powered, inverted pendulum rod with fixed and adjustable weights to achieve compactness. Through questionable practice, Johann Maelzel, incorporating Winkel's ideas, added a numerical scale, called it a metronome, and started mass-manufacturing the pyramid-shaped device in 1816 under his own name: "Maelzel's Metronome." The original text of Maelzel's patent in England can be downloaded.
Maelzel's mechanical metronome uses an adjustable weight on an inverted pendulum rod to control tempo. The weight slides up the pendulum rod to decrease tempo, or down to increase tempo. The pendulum swings back and forth in tempo, while a mechanism inside the metronome produces a clicking sound with each oscillation. A mechanical metronome does not need an electric battery, but runs from a spring-wound clockwork escapement. For uniform beats, the metronome should be placed on a hard, level, unmoving surface, and away from any strong magnets. Small variations in pendulum speed can also result from differences in temperature, air pressure, or gravity.
Since Maelzel's era, musical tempo is almost always measured in beats per minute. Metronomes often display both BPM numbers and traditional tempo markings, which are written words conveying a range of tempos and an associated character. For example, the Italian term Vivace indicates a tempo typically between 156 and 176 BPM, but it also communicates that the music should be played with a lively character.
A mechanical metronome's tempo is usually adjustable from 40 to 208 BPM. The most common arrangement of tempos on a Maelzel metronome begins with 40 beats per minute
and increases by 2 BPM: 42 44 46 48 50 52 54 56 58 60,
then by 3 BPM: 63 66 69 72,
then by 4 BPM: 76 80 84 88 92 96 100 104 108 112 116 120,
then by 6 BPM: 126 132 138 144,
then by 8 BPM: 152 160 168 176 184 192 200 208.
Some modern metronomes allow adjustment to more precise tempos, but such a difference is hardly perceptible.
Electromechanical metronomes
Electromechanical metronomes were invented by Frederick Franz in the US and patented in 1953. Instead of a clockwork or a quartz crystal, a plug-in electric motor operates the mechanism. Most use a mechanical variable-speed drive combination with a momentary switch and a cam wheel to time the beats. A frequent feature is an embedded neon lamp that flashes in time with the beat. Franz and Yamaha were common manufacturers in the 1960s and 1970s; a popular model was the Franz LB4.After the fall of the Soviet Bloc in 1991, the electromechanical Prague Metronome was installed as a silent kinetic sculpture overlooking the city, an inverted pendulum symbolizing the passage of time. It may still be the world's largest metronome, although Geneva and Gdańsk each have a larger pendulum clock.
Electronic metronomes
Most modern metronomes are electronic and use a battery-powered quartz crystal to maintain accuracy in any position, comparable to wristwatches since the 1980s. Electronic metronomes are considerably smaller and more rugged than the earlier types. The simplest electronic metronomes have dials or buttons to control the tempo and volume. Some also produce or measure tuning notes, usually around the range of A440. Sophisticated metronomes can produce two or more distinct sounds. Tones can differ in pitch, volume and/or timbre to distinguish downbeats from other beats, as well as compound and complex time signatures. Many electronic musical keyboards have built-in metronome functions with selectable rhythm patterns.Software metronomes
21st-century digital software metronomes run either as standalone applications on computers and smartphones, or in music sequencing and audio multitrack software packages. In recording studio applications, such as film scoring, a software metronome may provide a click track to synchronize musicians.Portable MP3 players including iPods can play pre-recorded MP3 metronome click tracks, which can use different sounds and samples instead of the usual metronome click or beep. Users of smartphones can install a wide range of metronome applications. The Google search engine includes an interactive metronome that can play between 40 and 218 BPM. Either method avoids the need to bring a physical metronome to lessons or practice sessions.
Vibrating metronome
In the 21st century, vibrating metronomes emerged as an alternative to audible or visual timing tools, providing a tactile means of tempo guidance. These devices produce rhythmic pulses that the user feels on their body, typically through vibrations delivered via a wristband, clip, or wearable device. Vibrating metronomes are especially useful in loud environments where audible clicks are difficult to hear, or in quiet practice settings where noise would be disruptive. Most vibrating metronomes are electronic, using internal motors or piezoelectric actuators to generate physical pulses. They are often wearable and portable, offering users the ability to place them on different parts of the body—such as the wrist, ankle, chest, or even the back—to better align with their physical playing posture or movement. Some models allow for custom vibration strength, beat subdivision, and group synchronization, making them popular among ensemble musicians and marching bands. They are particularly useful for musicians with hearing impairments or for performers of acoustic instruments, like strings or classical guitar, where audible clicks may interfere with sound quality. However, critics note that vibrations can sometimes be difficult to perceive during physically intense performances or when the device is poorly positioned. One notable example is the Soundbrenner Pulse, launched in 2015, which helped popularizing the idea of wearable metronomes among both amateur and professional musicians; It connects wirelessly to mobile apps for tempo control, synchronization, and advanced features such as setlists and rhythm libraries.Usage
Tempo indication
In written musical scores since the early 1800s, composers and conductors often indicate their preferred tempos using BPM metronome speeds, with or without descriptive tempo markings, to help musicians prepare for a performance. Even works that do not require a strictly constant tempo, such as musical passages with rubato, sometimes provide BPM markings to indicate the general tempo. Another mark that denotes tempo is M.M., for Maelzel's Metronome. The notation M.M. is usually followed by a note value and a number that indicates the tempo, as in.Ludwig van Beethoven, a personal acquaintance of Maelzel, became the first notable composer to indicate specific metronome markings in his music. This was done in December 1815, with the corrected copy of the score of the Cantata op. 112 containing Beethoven's first metronome mark.
Pacing tool
Musicians often practise with metronomes to develop and maintain a sense of timing and tempo. Metronomes are also used as a training tool to achieve a desired performance speed—not only by musicians, but also by dancers, runners, swimmers, and others.Specific uses include learning to maintain tempos and beats consistently. For example, a musician fighting a tendency to speed up might practise a phrase repeatedly while slightly slowing the BPM setting each time, to play more steadily. A musician or athlete seeking to improve technical proficiency might set the metronome to gradually higher speeds until the desired tempo is achieved. This also helps to expose unintentional slowdowns due to technical challenges or fatigue. Additionally, recording musicians use click tracks from metronomes to help audio engineers synchronize audio tracks.
In health care, metronomes can be used to maintain the desired pacing in various physiological tests and procedures. For example, CPR chest compressions are significantly more likely to follow the recommended 100–120 BPM when a hospital emergency room uses an audible metronome, or when rescuers in non-hospital settings can remember a suitably paced song as a "mental metronome".