Lichen planus
Lichen planus is a chronic inflammatory and autoimmune disease that affects the skin, nails, hair, and mucous membranes. It is not an actual lichen, but is named for its appearance. It is characterized by polygonal, flat-topped, violaceous papules and plaques with overlying, reticulated, fine white scale, commonly affecting dorsal hands, flexural wrists and forearms, trunk, anterior lower legs and oral mucosa. The hue may be gray-brown in people with darker skin. Although there is a broad clinical range of LP manifestations, the skin and oral cavity remain as the major sites of involvement. The cause is unknown, but it is thought to be the result of an autoimmune process with an unknown initial trigger. There is no cure, but many different medications and procedures have been used in efforts to control the symptoms.
The term lichenoid reaction refers to a lesion of similar or identical histopathologic and clinical appearance to lichen planus. Sometimes dental materials or certain medications can cause lichenoid reactions. They can also occur in association with graft versus host disease.
Classification
Lichen planus lesions are so called because of their "lichen-like" appearance and can be classified by the site they involve, or by their morphology.Site
Lichen planus may be categorized as affecting mucosal or cutaneous surfaces.- Cutaneous forms are those affecting the skin, scalp, and nails.
- Mucosal forms are those affecting the lining of the gastrointestinal tract, larynx, and other mucosal surfaces including the genitals, peritoneum, ears, nose, bladder and conjunctiva of the eyes.
Pattern
;Papular
;Annular
;Linear
; Hypertrophic
; Atrophic
; Bullous
; Actinic
; Ulcerative
; Pigmented
; Follicular
; Inverse
Overlap syndromes
Occasionally, lichen planus is known to occur with other conditions. For example:- Lupus erythematosus overlap syndrome. Lesions of this syndrome share features of both lupus erythematosus and lichen planus. Lesions are usually large and hypopigmented, atrophic, and with a red to blue colour and minimal scaling. Telangectasia may be present.
- Lichen sclerosus overlap syndrome, sharing features of lichen planus and lichen sclerosus.
Signs and symptoms
Skin
Variants of cutaneous lichen planus are distinguished based upon the appearance of the lesions and/or their distribution. Lesions can affect the:- Extremities. This is more common in Middle Eastern countries in spring and summer, where sunlight appears to have a precipitating effect.
- Palms and soles
- Intertriginous areas of the skin. This is also known as "inverse lichen planus".
- Nails characterized by irregular longitudinal grooving and ridging of the nail plate, thinning of the nail plate, pterygium formation, shedding of the nail plate with atrophy of the nail bed, subungual keratosis, longitudinal erthronychia, and subungual hyperpigmentation. A sand-papered appearance is present in around 10% of individuals with nail lichen planus.
- Hair and scalp. The scalp is rarely affected by a condition known as lichen planopilaris, acuminatus, follicular lichen planus, and peripilaris, characterised by violaceous, adherent follicular scale with progressive scarring alopecia. While lichen planus and lichen planopilaris may occur together, aside from sharing the term 'lichen' and revealing inflammation on skin biopsy, there is neither established data on their co-occurrence nor data to suggest a common etiology. Lichen planopilaris is considered an orphan disease with no definitive prevalence data and no proven effective treatments.
- Lichen planus pemphigoides characterized by the development of tense blisters atop lesions of lichen planus or the development vesicles de novo on uninvolved skin.
- Keratosis lichenoides chronica is a rare dermatosis characterized by violaceous papular and nodular lesions, often arranged in a linear or reticulate pattern on the dorsal hands and feet, extremities, and buttock, and some cases manifest by seborrheic dermatitis-like eruption on the scalp and face; also palmo plantar keratosis has been reported.
- Lichenoid keratoses is a cutaneous condition characterized by brown to red scaling maculopapules, found on sun-exposed skin of extremities. Restated, this is a cutaneous condition usually characterized by a solitary dusky-red to violaceous papular skin lesion.
- Lichenoid dermatitis represents a wide range of cutaneous disorders characterized by lichen planus-like skin lesions.
Mucous membranes
- Esophageal lichen planus, affecting the esophageal mucosa. This can present with difficulty or pain when swallowing due to oesophageal inflammation, or as the development of an esophageal stricture. It has also been hypothesized that it is a precursor to squamous cell carcinoma of the esophagus.
- Genital lichen planus, which may cause lesions on the glans penis or skin of the scrotum in males, and the vulva or vagina in females. Symptoms may include lower urinary tract symptoms associated with stenosis of the urethra, painful sexual intercourse, and itching. In females, Vulvovaginal-gingival syndrome, is severe and distinct variant affecting the vulva, vagina, and gums, with complications including scarring, vaginal stricture formation, or vulva destruction. The corresponding syndrome in males, affecting the glans penis and gums, is the peno-gingival syndrome. It is associated with HLA-DQB1.
Mouth
; Reticular
; Erosive or ulcerative
; Papular
; Plaque-like
; Atrophic
; Bullous
These types often coexist in the same individual. Oral lichen planus tends to present bilaterally as mostly white lesions on the inner cheek, although any mucosal site in the mouth may be involved. Other sites, in decreasing order of frequency, may include the tongue, lips, gingivae, floor of the mouth, and very rarely, the palate.
The most common symptoms of OLP include pain, burning, and discomfort in affected areas of the mouth. In severe cases, OLP is associated with debilitating pain causing difficulty speaking, eating, and swallowing, which may result in malnutrition and weight loss, or compromising airways and leading to breathing difficulties. In addition to physical discomfort, OLP can cause anxiety, depression, social isolation, and compromised quality of life, impacting patients' ability to work and participate in social life. Generally, OLP tends not to cause any discomfort or pain in mild cases, although many people experience significant soreness when eating or drinking acidic or spicy foodstuffs or beverages.
Oral lichen planus represents a serious chronic condition with significant unmet medical need. The FDA has recognized OLP as a serious disease warranting expanded access programs for investigational treatments, acknowledging the substantial impact on patients' daily functioning and quality of life. When symptoms arise, they are most commonly associated with the atrophic and ulcerative subtypes. These symptoms can include a burning sensation to severe pain. They may also experience mucosal bleeding in response to mild trauma, such as toothbrushing. Additionally, the Koebner phenomenon is not only present in cutaneous lichen planus but can also occur in the setting of OLP.
Severe manifestations of OLP include:
• Pain that interferes with basic oral functions including speaking, eating, and swallowing
• Malnutrition and weight loss due to difficulty eating
• Respiratory compromise when lesions affect airway passages
• Psychological impact including anxiety, depression, and social isolation
• Impaired work performance and reduced ability to participate in social activities
• Oral hygiene deficits due to pain during tooth brushing or denture wear
The disease affects approximately 6 million Americans with currently no FDA-approved therapies available, highlighting the substantial unmet medical need in this patient population.
Residual postinflammatory hyperpigmentation has been reported in association with OLP, manifesting as brown to black pigmentation on the oral mucosa and may most likely occur in dark-skinned individuals.
OLP may occur as a sole manifestation of the disease or in conjunction with other clinical manifestations of LP, including cutaneous LP, genital LP, nail LP, and lichen planopilaris.
Causes
Cutaneous LP is a self-limiting condition. It usually resolves within 6 to 12 months. Oral LP is a non infectious, chronic inflammatory condition that involves the oral mucosa and may be accompanied by skin lesions. The etiology of oral LP are unknown.It is not clear whether the mechanisms causing isolated oral LP are different from those causing oral LP with cutaneous LP. An immune-mediated mechanism where basal keratinocytes are being targeted as foreign antigens by activated T cells, especially CD8+ T cells, has been proposed. Upregulation of intercellular adhesion molecule-1 and cytokines associated with T-helper 1 immune response, may also play an important role in the pathogenesis of lichen planus.
Stress is thought to play a role in the pathogenesis of oral LP. Patients with anxiety and depression are reported more commonly with oral LP if compared to normal healthy individuals. Some studies have indicated that stressful events can induce LP lesions in otherwise healthy individuals. However, a cause effect relationship between stress and the onset of oral LP has not been demonstrated.
Autoimmune response to epithelial self-antigens remains a possibility. A single study of cutaneous LP reported evidence in support of autoimmunity by expanding in vitro T cells isolated from the skin lesions of two patients, followed by testing the ability of these T cells to kill autologous keratinocytes.
Several potential triggers of oral LP have been proposed over the years, mainly
- Hypersensitivity reaction
- * Restorative material or drugs can cause hypersensitivity reaction and lead to oral LP.
- * Oral LP usually resolve upon removal of the trigger, as is characteristics of oral LP
- Viral infection
Pathogenesis
Antigens presented on MHC 1 molecules activates CD8+ T cells on keratinocytes or by encounters with activated CD4+ helper T cells or cytokines produced by activated CD4+ helper T cells
Activated CD8+ T cells induce keratinocyte apoptosis through various mechanisms such as secretion of tumor necrosis factor -alpha, secretion of granzyme B, or Fas-Fas ligand interactions. Chemokines are produced by activated CD8+ T cells that attract additional inflammatory cells, thereby promoting continued inflammation.
Other mechanisms that have been proposed include:
- upregulation of matrix metalloproteinases that disrupt the epithelial basement membrane zone and allow entry of immune cells into the epidermis,
- the release of proinflammatory mediators and proteases by mast cells, and
- perturbations in the innate immune response that may involve toll-like receptors.
Diagnosis
Skin
Patient history and clinical presentation need to be taken to diagnose lichen planus. Patients with suspected cutaneous lichen planus need to be evaluated clinically through patient interviews and physical examinations. Patients should be questioned about their medication history, any history of pruritus or genital pain and history of dysphagia or odynophagia. Examination of entire cutaneous surface including the scalp, oral cavity and external genitalia need to be included. Wickham's striae often can be seen during microscopic examination of cutaneous lesions of lichen planus.To confirm the diagnosis of cutaneous lichen planus, a skin biopsy can be done. A punch biopsy of sufficient depth to the mid dermis is usually significant. Immunofluorescence studies are not always needed. Direct immunofluorescence can be useful in patients with bullous lesions to differentiate the condition from an autoimmune vesiculobullous disease.
Mouth
A diagnosis of oral lichen planus is confirmed through review of the patient history, physical examination, and histologic findings.The clinical evaluation should include a patient history that assesses the following:
- History of LP involving other body sites or other skin disorders that may present with similar findings
- Presence of associated symptoms
- Medication the patients are taking within the few weeks to months after drug initiation e.g. antihypertensives, antidepressants, diuretics, antidiabetics, NSAIDs, etc. to evaluate for the possibility of an oral lichenoid drug eruption
- History of dental restorations, use of dental appliances, or oral exposure to substances that may cause oral lichenoid contact eruptions
Tissue biopsies of oral LP help to confirm the diagnosis and are particularly of value for erythematous and erosive LP, which share features with multiple other mucosal disorders, including oral malignancy. Biopsies to confirm oral LP are less essential in patients who present with classic reticular LP, particularly in patients in whom a diagnosis of LP has already been confirmed through biopsy of an extraoral manifestation of this disorder.
Differential diagnosis
Skin
- Lichenoid drug eruption
- * The cutaneous manifestations resemble idiopathic lichen planus.
- Chronic graft-versus-host disease
- * The history of preceding hematopoietic cell transplant is helpful for diagnosis
- Psoriasis
- Atopic dermatitis
- Cutaneous lupus erythematosus
- Discoid lupus erythematosus
Mouth
Oral lichenoid drug reaction
Lichenoid drug eruptions may be caused by a variety of systemic medications and share clinical features with oral LP. Histologic findings of a deep mixed infiltrate with lymphocytes, plasma cells, and neutrophils and perivascular inflammation favor this diagnosis.Oral lichenoid contact reaction (allergic contact mucositis)
Oral lichenoid contact reactions may be caused by a variety of substances. The clinical and histologic features of oral lichenoid contact reactions are similar to oral LP. Patch testing and recognition of the proximity of an offending substance to the eruption can aid with diagnosis.Autoimmune blistering diseases
and other autoimmune blistering diseases may present with oral erosions and desquamative gingivitis similar to that seen in erosive LP. Biopsies for routine histologic examination and direct immunofluorescence are useful for distinguishing these disorders from oral LP.Graft-versus-host disease (GVHD)
Lacy, reticulated plaques or erosions that resemble oral LP may occur in GVHD. The histologic findings of these disorders are also similar. The patient history is useful for differentiating chronic GVHD from oral LP. Oral involvement in acute GVHD is less well characterized than chronic GVHD, but has been associated with erythematous, erosive, ulcerative, or lichenoid oral lesions.Leukoplakia
is a manifestation of squamous epithelial hyperplasia that may be a precursor to oral squamous cell carcinoma. White patches or plaques usually appear on the oral mucosa. To rule out malignancy, a biopsy of leukoplakia is indicated.Oral squamous cell carcinoma
can present as erythematous or white patches, ulcers, or exophytic masses. The highest risk for oral SCC may occur in patients with erythematous or erosive oral LP. A biopsy is indicated.Leukoedema
is a common, benign finding in the oral cavity that presents as white-gray, somewhat translucent plaques on the mucosa. The buccal mucosa is the most common site for involvement. Symptoms are absent, and no treatment is necessary.Oropharyngeal candidiasis
Oropharyngeal candidiasis is a common infection that has a predilection for infants, older adults with dentures, immunosuppressed individuals, and individuals utilizing intraoral corticosteroid therapy. Patients present with white plaques or erythematous patches on the buccal mucosa, palate, tongue, or oropharynx that may be mistaken for reticular LP.Histopathology
The histologic findings of oral LP can offer strong support for the diagnosis, but are not pathognomonic. Clinical correlation is required. Common histologic findings of oral LP include:- Parakeratosis and slight acanthosis of the epithelium
- Saw-toothed rete ridges
- Liquefaction degeneration of the basal layer with apoptotic keratinocytes
- An amorphous band of eosinophilic material at the basement membrane composed of fibrin or fibrinogen.
- A lichenoid lymphocytic infiltrate immediately subjacent to the epithelium.
Treatment
There is no cure for lichen planus, and so treatment of cutaneous and oral lichen planus is for symptomatic relief or due to cosmetic concerns. When medical treatment is pursued, first-line treatment typically involves either topical or systemic corticosteroids, and removal of any triggers. Without treatment, most lesions will spontaneously resolve within 6–9 months for cutaneous lesions, and longer for mucosal lesions.Skin
Many different treatments have been reported for cutaneous lichen planus, however there is a general lack of evidence of efficacy for any treatment. The mainstay of localized skin lesions is topical steroids. Additional treatments include retinoids, such as acitretin, or sulfasalazine. Narrow band UVB phototherapy or systemic PUVA therapy are known treatment modalities for generalized disease.Mouth
Reassurance that the condition is benign, elimination of precipitating factors and improving oral hygiene are considered initial management for symptomatic OLP, and these measures are reported to be useful. Treatment usually involves topical corticosteroids and analgesics, or if these are ineffective and the condition is severe, then systemic corticosteroids may be used. Calcineurin inhibitors are sometimes used. While topical steroids are widely accepted as first line treatment for mucosal lichen planus, there is only weak evidence to support their effectiveness for erosive oral lichen planus.Currently, there are no FDA-approved therapies specifically for OLP, representing a significant unmet medical need. Available treatments are palliative rather than curative and often provide inadequate symptom control. Current treatment limitations include: Poor drug delivery to oral mucosal surfaces due to saliva clearance; Limited contact time between topical medications and moist mucosal tissues; Systemic side effects with oral immunosuppressants; Treatment failures and symptom relapses; Secondary complications including oral candidiasis from chronic corticosteroid use. The FDA's approval of expanded access programs for investigational OLP treatments underscores the regulatory recognition of this condition as a serious disease with substantial unmet therapeutic need.
Prognosis
Cutaneous lichen planus lesions typically resolve within six months to a year. However, some variant such as the hypertrophic variant might persist for years if left untreated or unmonitored.It is found that cutaneous lichen planus does not carry a risk of skin cancer. In contrast to cutaneous LP, which is self limited, lichen planus lesions in the mouth may persist for many years, and tend to be difficult to treat, with relapses being common.
Although this condition was first described almost a century ago, it has been reported that its associated oral cancer risk has been exaggerated.
Overall, it is found that patients with erythematous or erosive oral lichen planus have a higher risk of oral squamous cell carcinoma compared to patients diagnosed with other variants.
Due to the possibility that oral LP may increase risk for oral cancer, patients with oral lichen planus are encouraged to avoid activities known to increase the risk for oral cancer, such as smoking and alcohol use. OLP carries a significant risk of malignant transformation to oral squamous cell carcinoma. The chronic inflammatory nature of OLP creates an environment that may predispose to dysplastic changes and eventual malignant transformation. Studies demonstrate that patients with erythematous or erosive oral lichen planus have a markedly higher risk of developing oral squamous cell carcinoma compared to patients with other variants or the general population.
Cancer surveillance is critical as dysplastic lesions may be inadvertently diagnosed as "lichenoid mucositis with mild reactive epithelial atypia" when they may actually represent dysplasia with malignant potential. Patients with oral lichen planus should be followed-up at least every 6 to 12 months, to assess the disease activity, changes in symptoms or even detect early signs of malignancy.
Epidemiology
The overall estimated prevalence of lichen planus in worldwide population is in the range of 0.2% to 5%.It generally occurs more commonly in females, in a ratio of 3:2, and most cases are diagnosed between the ages of 30 and 60, but it can occur at any age.
Lichen planus can occur in patients as diverse cutaneous manifestations alone or in combination with mucosal lichen planus and, or lichen planus of the nails. Study shows that frequency of mucosal involvement of lichen planus patients is 30- 70%.
Oral lichen planus is relatively common, It is one of the most common mucosal diseases. The prevalence in the general population is about 1.27–2.0%, with an estimated 6-7 million people affected in the United States alone. The disease predominantly affects middle-aged individuals with a female-to-male ratio of 2:1. Oral lichen planus in children is rare. About 50% of females with oral lichen planus were reported to have undiagnosed vulvar lichen planus.
The substantial patient population combined with the lack of effective treatments creates a major healthcare burden and highlights the critical need for novel therapeutic approaches. Healthcare utilization is significant due to:
• Chronic, relapsing nature requiring long-term management
• Need for regular cancer surveillance given malignant transformation risk
• Treatment-related complications requiring additional interventions
• Quality of life impairment affecting work productivity and social functioning
Some studies suggest that cutaneous lichen planus is more commonly found in men whilst oral lichen planus lesions are more commonly found in women.
History
Lichen planus was first described in 1869 by Erasmus Wilson as an inflammatory disorder with unknown etiology. Initially, the characteristic surface markings or striae was described by Weyl in 1885. In 1895, Wickham further explained the characteristic of the lesion, now known as Wickham striae. Further on, Darier explained the presence of such characteristic markings by correlating with an increase thickness of the granular cell layer. Fritz Williger published the first documented clinical case of malignant transformation of oral lichen planus in 1924. The coexistence of oral, cervical and stomach lichen planus lesions were described by Guogerot and Burnier in 1937. A similar variant of mucosal lichen planus as the vulvovaginal-gingival syndrome with erosive lesions involving oral and vulvovaginal mucosa were introduced by Pelisse and colleagues in year 1982.The origin of the word is believed to be from the Greek word λειχήν, originally 'liverwort', and the Latin word planus 'flat, even'.