Koumasa
Koumasa is a Minoan archaeological site in southern Crete, best known for its large prepalatial cemetery. It is located between the villages of Loukia and Koumasa, at the southern edge of the Mesara Plain and near the foothills of the Asterousia Mountains. The site was first excavated by Stephanos Xanthoudides between 1904 and 1906, followed by a second campaign in 1991–1992 by Alexandra Karetsou and Athanasia Kanta. Since 2012, systematic excavations and digital mapping by Heidelberg University under the direction of Prof. Diamantis Panagiotopoulos have revealed new architectural remains, domestic areas, and burial layers that shed light on settlement organization, funerary practices, and cross-cultural artistic influences during the Early Bronze Age.
Koumasa includes both a Prepalatial cemetery and an associated settlement extending across the saddle of the Korakies hill. The site contains large rectangular buildings, storage areas and terraced slopes that indicate long-term occupation and organized settlement planning. The tholos tombs are built with dry-stone masonry and rock-cut foundations, and some show evidence of plastered and painted surfaces.
Burial practices at Koumasa were varied and included cremation, the use of lime, secondary burials and ritual offerings such as pottery, beads and obsidian tools. Many of these items were deliberately broken and placed in specific deposits, reflecting structured ceremonial behavior. The site is also notable for its marble folded-arm figurines, which combine Cycladic features with local Minoan styles. Several figurines were found without heads, and some show modifications that suggest ritual handling.
Site description
The site features four tombs: three tholos tombs and one rectangular tomb. Around in diameter and a couple of metres (around in height, Minoan tholoi are considered to be the tombs of the elite and are often stocked with valuable artifacts. Though it is known mainly for the presumed burial goods that Stephanos Xanthoudides discovered in his original excavation, the site also extends further to the east. Archaeologists expect the position of the actual city and a precinct of Bronze Age Koumasa to be found there on the steep slope, as well as on top of the mound itself.Excavations
Koumasa was first excavated by Stephanos Xanthoudides from 1904 to 1906, with findings published in his book The Vaulted Tombs of Mesara. Some time after that, the site was robbed. The site declined until 1991, when Alexandra Karetsou and Athanasia Kanta began another excavation, which continued into 1992.Excavations were begun again in 2012 with the permission of the Greek Archaeological Service. These excavations were conducted by a multi-year interdisciplinary research programme of Heidelberg University, under the direction of Prof. Dr. Diamantis Panagiotopoulos. The aim of this program was to investigate the site and its vicinity using combined archaeological and scientific methods. Experts from the Heidelberg Geological Institute, supervised by Olaf Bubenzer, were to examine the area using laser technology. The group also includes a team of micromorphology experts from Tel Aviv University, supervised by Yuval Goren.
Settlement structure at Koumasa
Spatial extent and layout
Between 2012 and 2019, new excavations at Koumasa, led by D. Panagiotopoulos, revealed updated information about the layout of the Minoan settlement. Four trenches were opened on the hill of Korakies. These confirmed that the site covered almost the entire saddle of the hill, extending across at least 30 stremmata. Most buildings followed a southwest-to-northeast orientation.The excavations revealed multiple building types, including storage rooms, paved floors, and large multi-room structures with several occupational layers. These layers demonstrated continuous use from the Protopalatial period through to the Neopalatial period, indicating that the site remained an active settlement across various phases of Minoan history. Among the structures identified were buildings with thick stone walls, suggesting defensive or administrative purposes, as well as domestic spaces where pottery, stone tools, and bone fragments were recovered.
Digital survey and functional zoning
In 2014, a research team from Heidelberg University conducted a digital mapping project using LiDAR, QGIS, and Digital Elevation Models, producing a highly detailed topographic map of the settlement. This survey confirmed the locations of previously excavated tholos tombs but also identified new architectural remains and road networks, which are believed to be associated with residential areas. The mapping process uncovered walls and terraces that had not been recorded in earlier excavations, suggesting the presence of domestic infrastructure, including retaining walls for terraced housing.The application of QGIS analysis to the distribution of ceramic finds across the site revealed distinct concentration zones, indicating areas likely designated for ritual activities, domestic life, or public gatherings. The spatial differentiation of these concentrations supports the interpretation of Koumasa as a socially active settlement with specialized functional zones. Additionally, DEM analysis demonstrated that the settlement occupied an elevated and strategically advantageous location, overlooking the Mesara Plain. The natural terraces of Korakies hill provided both defensibility and visual control of the surrounding landscape, reinforcing the site's selection based on topographic benefits.
By integrating digital mapping data with the early 20th-century excavation records of Stefanos Xanthoudides, the Heidelberg team re-evaluated the site's spatial extent. Their reassessment proposed that Minoan activity at Koumasa spanned approximately, a figure that significantly refines earlier estimates. This comprehensive digital approach not only clarified the settlement's architectural organization but also highlighted its long-term occupation and adaptation to the landscape.
Burial architecture
Tholos tomb construction
The burial architecture at Koumasa is dominated by large circular tholos tombs constructed during the Prepalatial Minoan period. These tombs are built from locally sourced limestone, employing dry-stone construction techniques without the use of mortar. The stability of the tombs relies on the precise stacking of irregularly shaped stones, with the weight of the stones securing the structure. The walls consist of large limestone blocks, placed with skill to form the characteristic circular layout, while entrances are framed by long horizontal lintel stones, spanning the openings. Some tholos tombs, such as Tholos B, exhibit a double-walled construction, where a second outer wall encases the primary chamber, potentially for added stability or symbolic reasons.Within the precinct area, a 2017 microarchaeological study identified traces of lime plaster and pigmented surfaces applied to architectural elements. The lime plaster was produced through the calcination of limestone, generating quicklime, which was then slaked with water and applied to walls and floors. The plaster surfaces typically exhibited a light color, creating a reflective background for painted decoration. Under microscopic examination, the diffuse and irregular boundaries between the pigment and the plaster substrate indicated the use of both al fresco and fresco secco painting techniques. These decorative treatments were identified in multiple architectural spaces, including corridors and annexes, suggesting that not only the burial chambers but also auxiliary areas were adorned with painted finishes.
Architectural continuity and ritual use
The chemical composition of the plaster at Koumasa shares notable similarities with that found at major Minoan centers like Knossos and Phaistos. These findings point to shared technological traditions across the Minoan world, combined with regional adaptations in the application and style of decorative materials. In Building Gamma, located within the cemetery complex, fragments of red-colored plaster floors were uncovered in secondary spaces, indicating a ceremonial use of these areas. The floor surfaces in these annexes were paved with cut slabs and coated with plaster, with layers of colored pigments applied in successive phases of use.Archaeological investigations also demonstrate that many tombs underwent multiple construction and renovation phases. At Tholos B, stratigraphic analysis revealed blocked passages, reworked floor levels, and added annexes, which suggest that these burial structures were modified over time to accommodate shifting ritual practices or evolving burial needs. In several cases, corridor-like spaces adjoining main tombs were identified, with evidence of red-painted walls and blue plastered floors. These features were uncovered in the so-called sanctuary complex, located at a higher elevation above the main settlement, further connecting the architectural landscape of Koumasa to ritual and ceremonial functions.
In Room 1 of the sanctuary, a red plaster floor was overlaid with a later blue-painted floor at approximately the same level, suggesting four distinct construction phases. Each phase involved remodeling or redecorating, possibly aligning with changes in ritual use over time. These repeated modifications, alongside the application of decorative plaster and pigments in burial and ceremonial spaces, illustrate the architectural complexity and symbolic significance embedded in Koumasa's funerary landscape.