Jammu and Kashmir (union territory)
Jammu and Kashmir is a region administered by India as a union territory and consists of the southern portion of the larger Kashmir region, which has been the subject of a dispute between India and Pakistan since 1947 and between India and China since 1959.
The Line of Control separates Jammu and Kashmir from the Pakistani-administered territories of Azad Kashmir and Gilgit-Baltistan in the west and north respectively. It lies to the north of the Indian states of Himachal Pradesh and Punjab and to the west of Ladakh which is administered by India as a union territory. Insurgency in Jammu and Kashmir has persisted in protest over autonomy and rights. In 2019, the Jammu and Kashmir Reorganisation Act was passed, reconstituting the former state of Jammu and Kashmir into two union territories: Ladakh in the east and the residuary Jammu and Kashmir in the west.
Srinagar and Jammu jointly serve as the capital of the region, which is divided into two divisions and 20 districts. The area holds substantial mineral deposits, including sapphire, borax, and graphite. Agriculture and services drive the economy, with major contributors being horticulture, handicrafts, and tourism. Apple cultivation is one of the largest industries, employing 3.5 million people and producing 10% of the gross state domestic product. Despite these activities, over 10% of the population lives below the national poverty line.
Terminology
Jammu and Kashmir is named after the two regions it encompasses the Jammu region and the Kashmir Valley. India collectively refers to the parts of Kashmir under Pakistani administration as "Pakistan-occupied Kashmir", and considers the region corresponding to Azad Kashmir as part of Jammu and Kashmir. Pakistan collectively refers to the Indian-administered territories of Kashmir as "Indian-occupied Kashmir" or "Indian-held Kashmir". Neutral sources use "Indian-administered Kashmir"/"Pakistan-administered Kashmir" and "Indian-controlled Kashmir"/"Pakistan-controlled Kashmir" to demarcate the areas.History
After the Indo-Pakistani war of 1947–1948, three distinct areas of the princely state of Jammu and Kashmir were under Indian control: Muslim-majority Kashmir Valley, Hindu-majority Jammu region, and Buddhist-dominated Ladakh district. These regions were constituted as Jammu and Kashmir state and accorded special status by Article 370 of the Constitution of India, adopted in 1950. In contrast to other states of India, Jammu and Kashmir established its own constitution, flag, and administrative autonomy. In 1954, Article 35A was introduced via a Presidential Order under Article 370, empowering the Jammu and Kashmir Legislature to define permanent residents and bar Indian citizens from other states from purchasing property. The Constituent Assembly, tasked with drafting the constitution and deciding Article 370's future, adopted the constitution of Jammu and Kashmir in 1957 and then dissolved without recommending 370's abrogation, leading to the provision's indefinite continuation. From the early 1950s, Jammu and Kashmir used the titles of Prime Minister and Sadr-e-Riyasat for its executive heads, as permitted under Article 370 and formalised in the Delhi Agreement of 1952. In 1965, through a Presidential Order, the Bakshi Ghulam Mohammad-led Congress government in Jammu and Kashmir amended the constitution to replace the titles of Prime Minister and Sadr-e-Riyasat with Chief Minister and Governor, aligning them with other Indian states.In 1953, Sheikh Abdullah, the first Prime Minister of Jammu and Kashmir, was dismissed and jailed by the Indian government over charges of conspiracy, accused of espousing the creation of an independent country. Abdullah was released in 1968 and, following the Indira–Sheikh Accord of 1975, returned to power as chief minister after a political reconciliation with the central government. After his death in 1982, unrest and violence persisted in the Kashmiri Valley and, following a disputed state election in 1987, an insurgency persisted in protest over autonomy and rights. In the early 1990s, amid the rise of militancy and targeted violence, a mass exodus of Kashmiri Hindus occurred from the Kashmir Valley. Through the 1990s and 2000s, the region witnessed prolonged violence between insurgent groups and Indian security forces.
While Article 370 had come to be seen as effectively permanent, it historically faced ideological opposition. In the 1950s, Syama Prasad Mookerjee, founder of the Bharatiya Jana Sangh, opposed Article 370 on grounds that it hindered national integration and created unequal constitutional treatment. In their 2019 Indian general election manifesto, the Bharatiya Janata Party pledged its revocation. After its victory, the Parliament of India passed resolutions to repeal Article 370 in August 2019, and Article 35A was abolished through suspension of the 1954 Presidential Order. At the same time, a reorganisation act was also passed to reconstitute the state into two union territories: the new union territory of Ladakh, with the residual state continuing as the union territory of Jammu and Kashmir. The reorganisation took effect from 31 October 2019. In the days that followed, nearly 4,000 people, including two former Chief Ministers and hundreds of other politicians, were arrested by the Indian authorities in Kashmir; the state was put under a lockdown and communication and internet services were suspended.
In April 2020, the government notified a domicile law to replace the previous 'permanent residents' scheme. Under the new law, any one that resided in Jammu and Kashmir for 15 years, or studied for seven years and appeared for Class 10 and Class 12 exams, would be deemed to be a 'domicile'. Government officials that served in Jammu and Kashmir for 10 years and their children also become eligible for domicile status. In April 2025, it was revealed that over 83,000 people received domicile certificate under the new law who would not have qualified under the old laws.
On 11 December 2023, the Supreme Court of India unanimously upheld the abrogation of Articles 370 and 35A, while also directing the union government to restore the statehood of Jammu and Kashmir and hold legislative assembly elections no later than September 2024. The assembly election was held from September to October 2024. The alliance led by Jammu & Kashmir National Conference formed the first government of the residual union territory with Omar Abdullah as chief minister.
Geography
Topography
Jammu and Kashmir is home to several valleys such as the Kashmir Valley, Tawi Valley, Chenab Valley, Poonch Valley, Sind Valley, and Lidder Valley. The Kashmir Valley is wide and in area. The Himalayas divide the Kashmir Valley from the Tibetan Plateau while the Pir Panjal range, which encloses the valley from the west and the south, separates it from the Punjab Plain of the Indo-Gangetic Plain. Along the northeastern flank of the Valley runs the main range of the Himalayas. This valley has an average height of above sea-level, but the surrounding Pir Panjal range has an average elevation of. The Jhelum River is the major Himalayan river which flows through the Kashmir Valley. The southern Jammu region is mostly mountainous, with the Shivaliks, the middle and the great Himalayas running parallel to each other in a southeast–northwest direction. A narrow southwestern strip constitutes fertile plains. The Chenab, Tawi and Ravi are important rivers flowing through the Jammu region.File:Banihal Pass, Jammu and Kashmir, India.jpg|thumb|400px|View from the Banihal pass; the pass connects the Vale of Kashmir with the mountainous Jammu region
Climate
The climate of Jammu and Kashmir varies with altitude and across regions. Southern and southwestern areas have a sub-tropical climate, with hot summers and cool winters. This region receives most of its rainfall during the monsoon season. In the east and north, summers are usually pleasant. The effect of the monsoon diminishes in areas lying to the leeward side of the Pir Panjal, such as the Kashmir valley, and much of the rainfall happens in the spring season due to western disturbances. Winters are cold, with temperatures reaching sub-zero levels. Snowfall is common in the valley and the mountain areas.Administrative divisions
The union territory of Jammu and Kashmir consists of two divisions: Jammu Division and Kashmir Division, and is further divided into 20 districts.For administrative purposes, the Union Territory is divided into two divisions, namely Jammu division and Kashmir division. These divisions are further subdivided into 20 districts. The districts are further subdivided into sub-districts and 207 tehsils. Each division is headed by a divisional commissioner. Each district is headed by a Deputy Commissioner, an Indian Administrative Service officer, who also functions as the District Magistrate and District Development Commissioner of the district. The Deputy Commissioner is assisted by Additional Deputy Commissioners, Additional District Magistrates, and Additional Development Commissioners. Each sub-district is headed by a sub-divisional magistrate, while each tehsil is headed by a Tehsildar.
For the purposes of land revenue administration, tehsils are subdivided into 523 niabats, which in turn are further subdivided into 427 GQ Circles. The GQ Circles are further subdivided into 1,632 Patwar Halqas, comprising 6,850 villages in the Union Territory.
Local governance
The Jammu and Kashmir Panchayati Raj Act, 1989 provides the legal framework for the establishment and functioning of Panchayati Raj Institutions. Panchayati Raj Institutions are responsible for rural governance and include Halqa Panchayats at the village level, Block Development Councils at the block level, and District Development and Planning Councils at the district level. The District Development Councils and Block Development Councils consist of elected members from their respective constituencies, along with ex officio members such as Members of the Legislative Assembly, Members of Parliament, and Sarpanchs from the respective DDC and BDC areas. There are 20 District Development Councils, 310 Block Development Councils, and 4291 Halqa Panchayats.For urban governance, Urban Local Bodies consist of Municipal Corporations, Municipal Councils, Municipal Committees, and Cantonment Boards for cantonment areas. Jammu and Kashmir has two Municipal Corporations—the Jammu Municipal Corporation and the Srinagar Municipal Corporation—for the cities of Jammu and Srinagar, respectively. In addition, there are 9 Municipal Councils and 76 Municipal Committees governing smaller towns across the Union Territory.