Ixkun
Ixkun is a pre-Columbian Maya archaeological site, situated in the Petén Basin region of the southern Maya lowlands. It lies to the north of the town of Dolores, in the modern-day department of Petén, Guatemala. It is a large site containing many unrestored mounds and ruins and is the best known archaeological site within the municipality of Dolores.
Ixkun was the capital of one of the four largest kingdoms in the upper Mopan Valley, the others being Curucuitz, Ixcol and Ixtonton. Eight sites fell within the boundaries of the kingdom, showing a clear hierarchy. Stela 1 at Ixkun is one of the tallest stone monuments in the entire Petén Basin.
Although the main period of activity was during the Late Classic Period, the site was occupied from the Late Preclassic right through to the Postclassic Period.
Location
Ixkun is located within the municipality of Dolores, north of the town itself. The site is situated upon the Dolores plateau in the southern portion of the Petén Department of Guatemala, in the northwestern portion of the Maya Mountains. It occupies a series of karstic hills within a wide valley that covers. The Mopan River flows east of the ruins. The area covered by the kingdom included wide expanses suitable for agriculture, parts of the floodplains of the Mopan and Xa'an Rivers. The city was situated upon a north-south trade route that linked the Dolores Valley to the Mopan River, controlling access to Ucanal and other cities within the Mopan drainage.Ixkun is located southwest of the ruins of the major Maya city of Caracol. It is north of the ruins of Ixtonton.
Known rulers
| Nickname | Ruled |
| Eight Skull | –c. 790 |
| Rabbit God K | c. 790–800 |
History
Ixkun was first occupied in the Late Preclassic Period, with Early Classic structures built over the earlier Preclassic remains. The period of greatest activity was the Late Classic, extensive occupation continued into the Terminal Classic, although at that time construction projects were abandoned before completion. There is also evidence of low-level occupation continuing into the Postclassic Period. As of 2005, no Emblem Glyph had been identified for Ixkun, due in large part to the highly eroded nature of the hieroglyphic inscriptions at the site.The history of Ixkun appears to be closely tied to that of the neighbouring city of Sacul. The alliances and conflicts between Ixkun and other sites in the northwestern Maya Mountains, such as Sacul and Ucanal, indicate wider political relationships within the central Maya lowlands.
Preclassic
The earliest settlement within the area of the later Ixkun kingdom was in the Middle Preclassic in the minor archaeological sites El Pedregal and Mopan 3-East. Ixkun itself shows some evidence of occupation in the Preclassic, although this was more oriented toward ritual activity in caves nearby.Early Classic
In the Early Classic, settlement extended to Mopan 3-Southeast and Ixkun itself. A few Early Classic ceramic remains were recovered from around the base of Group 38 near the site core.Late Classic
Ixkun experienced a period of stable expansion during the Late Classic Period, with enlargement of the site core, increased residential areas and the erection of stone monuments. During the Late Classic Ixkun emerged as the capital of the kingdom. At this time Ixkun controlled a large territory within which it established a number of secondary sites, including Mopan 3-West and Xa'an Abajo in the west, El Tz'ic in the south and La Jutera in the northwest. The kingdom appears to have reached its apogee around the end of the 8th century AD, as demonstrated by the sculpted monuments at the site.Tum Yohl K'unich, the late 8th-century king of Caracol, took part in a ritual overseen by the king of Ixkun. This was recorded in a hieroglyphic text painted onto the wall of the Naj Tunich cave.
Ixkun was burned in AD 779. In the same year, Ixkun went to war against Sacul, the battle was fought on December 21 and Ixkun appears to have been victorious. On 10 May 780, Ixkun fought another victorious battle, this time against Ucanal. Sacul and Ucanal are known to have had an alliance, so it has been theorised that after Ixkun's defeat of the former, Ucanal intervened to assist it and was defeated in turn. It is believed that these conflicts were carried out during the rule of king "Eight Skull" of Ixkun. Ixkun's hostility with Sacul did not last, stelae at both cities record the visit of Ch'iyel, king of Sacul, to Ixkun on 11 October 790, when king Rabbit God K ruled. Ixkun and Sacul formed a military alliance at this time against another city whose identity is unclear, although it could be Ixtonton.
Terminal Classic
Ixkun was densely occupied during the Terminal Classic Period. Around AD 800 the king "Rabbit God K" erected the last sculpted monument at the city and was preparing new construction projects, with construction material piled ready for use in various places in the site core, however these projects were never finished. However, activity continued into the Terminal Classic in the residential areas of the city, suggesting that the workforce was being used elsewhere rather than that the city was abandoned. The most likely explanation is that Ixkun was eclipsed by nearby Ixtonton and the much reduced population was now dependent upon that polity, a fate that also befell the other cities of the Dolores Plateau in the Terminal Classic.Postclassic
Evidence of domestic activity during the Postclassic was excavated from Group 37, to the east of the North Causeway. Group 38, immediately west of the same causeway, was also occupied during the Postclassic.Modern history
Ixkun has been explored since the 19th century, in large part due to the presence at the site of the impressive Stela 1. Modesto Méndez, governor of Petén, visited the ruins in 1852, he may have commissioned Eusebio Lara to draw the monuments. Alfred Maudslay visited Ixkun in 1887, he mapped the ruins and may have been the discoverer of Stelae 2 and 3. He also drew and photographed Stela 1 and made a mould of it. Maudslay's excavation of the summit of Structure 6 on the Main Plaza was one of the earliest formal archaeological investigations in the Maya Lowlands.Sylvanus Morley visited the site in 1914 with Herbert Spinden. They remapped the ruins and recorded some of the inscriptions as well as photographing the monuments.
Ian Graham visited Ixkun in 1971, 1972 and 1978, he also remapped the site and photographed the monuments. He moved the surviving pieces of the looted Stela 5 to Dolores for safekeeping. From 1985 onwards Ixkun has been investigated by the Altas Arqueológico de Guatemala. The two causeways were explored by Oswaldo Gómez in 1993. Group 50 was excavated by Claudia Valenzuela, Group 37 was explored by Varinia Matute and Group 38 was excavated by Erika M. Gómez, all in 2001.
Site description
Ixkun shows signs of occupation dating from the Preclassic Period, reaching its height in the Late Classic. The site is large, its central area including a ballcourt, temples, vaulted palaces, an E-Group complex and 2 mid-size stepped pyramids, among other structures. Archaeologists have mapped 51 architectural groups within the ancient city, located both inside and outside the bounds of the protected archaeological park. The majority of these were residential in nature. There are at least 46 residential groups with 245 mounds and several chultuns. An important architectural complex is located on a hill immediately to the south of the site core. Four nearby caves show evidence of having been used for ceremonial purposes during the Classic Period.The site core underwent three formal construction phases during the Late Classic period. The first phase, although dated to the Late Classic, is not associated with any sculpted monuments and therefore has not been precisely dated. The second phase has been associated with Stela 2, and dated to around 779 AD. The third phase has been dated to around 790 AD due to its association with Stela 1.
Site core
The site core is arranged around a number of plazas.Tha Acropolis was built around a number of patios. Patio 1 was built around 779, during the second principal construction phase of the city centre. Patio 2 shows unfinished construction dating to the Terminal Classic. Two structures were in use when the city centre was abandoned, but a third structure was merely a pile of fill waiting to be covered.
The North Plaza was also occupied during the first construction phase of the Late Classic period.
The Central Plaza was first occupied the earliest construction phase during the Late Classic period.
The South Plaza was laid out during the second construction phase, dated to around 779.
The E-Group is located in the centre of the city. It consists of six structures laid out in a typical arrangement for this type of architectural complex. The East Platform supports a temple with a number of rooms, while the West Pyramid has a square base. The East Platform and West Pyramid were built during the earliest of the three Late Classic construction phases, the complex was expanded with the addition of the north and south platforms during the second phase, around 779.
The Ballcourt is also located in the site core, the earliest version was built during the second construction phase around 779. The end zones are open and it is aligned north-south.
The South Group is located upon a hill about south of the site core and is linked to it by a causeway.
Causeways
The South Causeway runs southwards from the eastern side of the South Plaza to the South Group. It is long and wide. It is raised above the forest floor. It unites the South and Central Plazas with the South Group. At the southern end of the causeway, at the foot of the hill supporting the South Group, is a platform that was associated with a number of monuments, including Stela 5, Monument 6 and a circular altar. Near the middle of the causeway were found the remains of Monument 13. Near the central portion, the parapet of the causeway also served to contain a small reservoir. The reservoir was prevented from overflowing onto the causeway by a drain, near to which was found an offering of six small ceramic vessels that were interred when the causeway was built in the Late Classic.The North Causeway runs northwards from the north side of the North Plaza to Group 50. It is long and wide. The causeway is raised above the forest floor. The causeway has well-preserved parapets; the eastern parapet also served to protect against flooding by the Arroyo Este stream.