Hong Taiji
Hong Taiji, sometimes rendered as Huang Taiji and occasionally referred to as Abahai in Western literature, also known by his temple name Emperor Taizong of Qing, was the second khan of the Later Jin dynasty and the founding emperor of the Qing dynasty. He was responsible for consolidating the empire that his father Nurhaci had founded and laid the groundwork for the conquest of the Ming dynasty, although he died before this was accomplished. He conquered Inner Mongolia and the remainder of Manchuria and invaded Korea, which became a Qing tributary state. He was also responsible for changing the name of the Jurchens to "Manchu" in 1635, and changing the name of his dynasty from "Great Jin" to "Great Qing" in 1636.
Names and titles
It is unclear whether "Hong Taiji" was a title or a personal name. Written in Manchu, hong taiji was borrowed from the Mongolian title khong tayiji. That Mongolian term was itself derived from the Chinese huang taizi, but in Mongolian it meant, among other things, something similar to "respected son". Alternatively, historian Pamela Crossley argues that "Hung Taiji" was a title "of Mongolian inspiration" derived from hung, a word that appeared in other Mongolian titles at the time. Early seventeenth-century Chinese and Korean sources rendered his name as "Hong Taiji". The modern Chinese rendering "Huang Taiji", which uses the character huang, misleadingly implies that Hong Taiji once held the title of heir apparent, even though his father Nurhaci never designated a successor."Hong Taiji" was very rarely used in Manchu sources, because they observed a taboo on the personal names of emperors. In redacted documents, Hong Taiji was simply called the "Fourth Beile" or "fourth prince", indicating that he was the fourth ranked among the eight beile Nurhaci had designated from among his sons. Although he was the eighth prince, he was the fourth beile amongst the Four Senior Beiles who rotated leading administrative power on behalf of Nurhaci after the original crown prince Cuyen was deposed. At this time and after the deposition of Cuyen, Hong Taiji was awarded control of Cuyen's Plain White Banner troops by Nurhaci for his military contributions to the empire. Dudu, son of Cuyen, would control the newly split Bordered White Banner and later transferred to Ajige. After Lady Abahai was rumored to be forced to be buried with Nurhaci after his death, Hong Taiji promised to personally raise her three surviving sons Ajige, Dorgon and Dodo, and in essence also controlled both White Banners for maintaining good brotherly relations. However, an archival document rediscovered in 1996 and recounting events from 1621 calls him "Hong Taiji" in a discussion concerning the possible naming of Nurhaci's heir apparent, a title that the document refers to as taise. Tatiana Pang and Giovanni Stary, two specialists of early Manchu history, consider this document as "further evidence" that Hong Taiji was his real name, "not being at all connected with the Chinese title huang taizi". Historian Mark Elliott views this as persuasive evidence that Hong Taiji was not a title, but a personal name.
Western scholars used to refer to Hong Taiji as "Abahai", but this appellation is now considered mistaken. Hong Taiji was never mentioned under this name in Manchu and Chinese sources; it was a mistake first made by Russian clergyman and later repeated by sinologists starting in the early twentieth century. Giovanni Stary states that this name may have originated by confusing "Abkai" with Abkai sure, which was Hong Taiji's era name in the Manchu language. Though "Abahai" is indeed "unattested in Manchu sources", it might also have derived from the Mongol word Abaġai, an honorary name given to the younger sons of hereditary monarchs. According to another view, Hong Taiji was mistakenly referred to as Abahai as a result of a confusion with the name of Lady Abahai, one of Nurhaci's consorts.
Hong Taiji was the second khan of the Later Jin and then emperor of the Qing dynasty, after he changed its name. His title as great khan was Bogd Sécén Khaan, and he was referred to as Bogda Khan by his Mongol subjects. His reign names, which were used in his lifetime to record dates, were Tiancong from 1627 to 1636, and Chongde from 1636 to 1643.
Hong Taiji's temple name, by which he was worshipped at the Imperial Ancestral Temple, was Taizong, the name that was conventionally given to the second emperor of a dynasty. His posthumous name, which was chosen to reflect his style of rule, was Emperor Wen, which means "the culturing emperor" or "the emperor of letters".
Consolidation of power
Hong Taiji was the eighth son of Nurhaci, whom he succeeded as the second ruler of the Later Jin dynasty in 1626. He might have had Mongolian ancestry and half blood from the Yehe Nara clan as the son of Empress Xiaocigao, and he might have been genetically related to the Mongolic Daur people as a member of the Aisin-Gioro clan.Although it has always been regarded as gossip, he was said to have been involved in the suicide of Dorgon's mother, Lady Abahai, in order to block the succession of his younger brother. This is speculated because at the time of Nurhaci's death, there were Four Senior Beiles with Hong Taiji holding the lowest rank, but also being the most fit one to rule. It was between Hong Taiji and Daisan mainly, although Manggūltai tried to thrown his name into the mix, Dorgon quickly shut him up by claiming other Jurchens and Mongolians would not support a Khan who supposedly killed his own mother. Whether it was a Lady Abahai suicide or forced death to be buried with Nurhaci after his death, the other beiles and princes would not support the rumored succession and claims of Dorgon to the throne as he and his two brothers were just teenagers without military merit. Hong Taiji was said to be fluent in Manchu, Mongolian, and the Han languages and writings. As the 4th Senior Beile with a history of military merit that matches Daisan, Hong Taiji was nice and respectful to other beiles, princes, and their children and family. Being a better strategist and politician than Daisan, Hong Taiji gained the final endorsement from Daisan and the other beiles and princes who supported Daisan turned their consolidated support towards Hong Taiji and urged him to take the throne. Hong Taiji swore he will continue love and respect all his brothers and cousins and their family. Hong Taiji also would take the throne as long as Daisan, Amin, and Manggūltai continue to share administrative power with him until he earns the power to rule alone. During his coronation, Hong Taiji even bowed to his 2nd brother, eldest cousin, and 5th brother as a show of honor and respect that he is elected honorably so nobody will question his succession.
Originally, at the end of Nurhaci's reign, Hong Taiji controlled the two White Banners, but after Lady Abahai's death, he switched his two banners with Dorgon and Dodo's two Yellow banners that was directed passed down from Nurhaci. In the end, Hong Taiji had control over the two highest and strongest banners — the Plain Yellow Banner and Bordered Yellow Banners — and the most influence as an elected Khan and second ruler of the Later Jin Dynasty. From there, he slowly got rid of his other three senior beiles and competitors' powers. Later, he would also receive the Plain Blue Banner from his fifth brother Manggūltai, which was the third strongest banner at that time for the treasonous crime of withdrawing his sword and threatening Hong Taiji. Those three banners would officially become the Upper Three Banners during the early years of the Qing dynasty. Unofficially known was the Three Upper Banners or Imperial Banners directly controlled by the Khan and later Emperor of the Qing Dynasty. The Plain Blue Banner was eventually switched with Dorgon's Plain White Banner when he was Royal Imperial Uncle Prince Regent for Fulin.
Ethnic policies
During his reign, Hong Taiji started recruitment of Han Chinese officials. After a 1623 revolt, Nurhaci came to mistrust his Nikan followers so Hong Taiji began their assimilation into the country and government.A mass marriage of Han Chinese officers and officials to Manchu women numbering 1,000 couples was arranged by Prince Yoto and Hong Taiji in 1632 to promote harmony between the two ethnic groups.
The Mongol Yamen was established in 1636 for indirect government of Inner Mongolia after the Mongols were conquered by Hong Taiji. It was renamed to Lifanyuan in 1638. Initially, the ministerial affairs were settled, while vice-ministers were set up as vice-ministers.
Expansion
He continued the expansion of the Later Jin dynasty in Manchuria, pushing deeper into the Mongolian Plateau and raiding the Joseon dynasty and the Ming dynasty. His personal military abilities were widely praised and he effectively developed the military-civil administration known as the Eight Banners or Banner system. This system was well-suited to accept the different peoples, primarily Han and Mongols, who joined the Later Jin state either following negotiated agreements or military defeat.Although Hong Taiji patronized Tibetan Buddhism in public, in private he disdained the Buddhist belief of the Mongols and thought it was destructive of Mongol identity. He is quoted to have said that, "The Mongolian princes are abandoning the Mongolian language; their names are all in imitation of the lamas." The Manchus themselves such as Hong Taiji did not personally believe in Tibetan Buddhism and few wanted to convert. Hong Taiji described some Tibetan Buddhist lamas as "incorrigibles" and "liars", but still patronized Buddhism in order to harness the Tibetans' and Mongols' belief in the religion.
Hong Taiji started his conquest by subduing the potent Ming ally in Korea. February 1627 his forces crossed the Yalu River which had frozen. In 1628, he attempted to invade the Ming dynasty, but was defeated by Yuan Chonghuan and his use of artillery. During the next five years, Hong Taiji spent resources in training his artillery to offset the strength of the Ming artillery.
Hong Taiji upgraded the weapons of the Empire. He realized the advantage of the Red Cannons and later also bought the Red Cannons into the army. Though the Ming dynasty still had more cannons, Hong Taiji now possessed the cannons of equal might and Asia's strongest cavalry. Also during this time, he sent several probing raids into northern China which were defeated. First attack went through the Jehol Pass, then in 1632 and 1634 he sent raids into Shanxi.
In 1636, Hong Taiji invaded Joseon Korea, as the latter did not accept that Hong Taiji had become emperor and refused to assist in operations against the Ming. With the Joseon dynasty surrendered in 1637, Hong Taiji succeeded in making them cut off relations with the Ming dynasty and force them to submit as tributary state of the Qing dynasty. Also during this period, Hong Taiji took over Inner Mongolia, which protected northern border of China, in three major wars, each of them victorious. From 1636 until 1644, he sent 4 major expeditions into the Amur region. In 1640 he completed the conquest of the Evenks, when he defeated and captured their leader Bombogor. By 1644, the entire region was under his control.
Huang Taji's plan at first was to make a deal with the Ming dynasty. If the Ming was willing to give support and money that would be beneficial to the Qing's economy, the Qing in exchange would not only be willing to not attack the borders, but also admit itself as a country one level lower than the Ming dynasty; however, since Ming court officials were reminded of the deal that preceded the Song dynasty's wars with the Jin Empire, the Ming refused the exchange. Huang Taiji rejected the comparison, saying that, "Neither is your Ming ruler a descendant of the Song nor are we heir to the Jin. That was another time." Hong Taiji had not wanted to conquer the Ming. The Ming's refusal ultimately led him to take the offensive. The people who first encouraged him to invade the Ming dynasty were his ethnic Han advisors Fan Wencheng, Ma Guozhu, and Ning Wanwo. Hong Taiji recognized that the Manchus needed Han defectors in order to assist in the conquest of the Ming, and thus explained to other Manchus why he also needed to be lenient to recent defectors like Ming general Hong Chengchou, who surrendered to the Qing in 1642.