Heqin


Heqin, also known as marriage alliance, refers to the historical practice of Chinese monarchs marrying princesses—usually members of minor branches of the ruling family—to rulers of neighboring states. It was often adopted as an appeasement strategy with an enemy state that was too powerful to defeat on the battlefield. The policy was not always effective. It implied an equal diplomatic status between the two monarchs. As a result, it was controversial and had many critics.
Lou Jing, the author of the policy, proposed granting the eldest daughter of Emperor Gaozu of Han to Modu Chanyu of the Xiongnu. His proposal was adopted and implemented with a treaty in 198BC, following the Battle of Baideng two years prior. Wang Zhaojun, of the Han dynasty, and Princess Wencheng, of the Tang dynasty, are among the most famous heqin princesses.
The 20th-century scholar Wang Tonglin praised heqin for facilitating the "melting of races" in China.

Han dynasty

There were a total of fifteen instances of heqin marriage alliances during the Han dynasty.
The Han dynasty sent random unrelated commoner women falsely labeled as "princesses" and members of the Han imperial family multiple times when they were practicing Heqin marriage alliances with the Xiongnu in order to avoid sending the emperor's daughters.
  • 200BC: Emperor Gaozu of Han marries a Han "princess" to Xiongnu chieftain Modu Chanyu. This is the first recorded incidence of heqin in Chinese history.
  • 192BC: Emperor Hui of Han marries another Han "princess" to Xiongnu chieftain Modu Chanyu.
  • 176BC: Emperor Wen of Han marries a third Han "princess" to Xiongnu chieftain Modu Chanyu.
  • 174BC: Emperor Wen of Han marries a Han "princess" to Xiongnu chieftain Laoshang Chanyu. She brings a Yan eunuch named Zhonghang Yue with her to be her tutor.
  • 162BC: Emperor Wen of Han marries another Han "princess" to Xiongnu chieftain Laoshang Chanyu.
  • 160BC: Emperor Wen of Han marries a Han "princess" to Xiongnu chieftain Gunchen Chanyu.
  • 156BC: Emperor Jing of Han marries another Han "princess" to Xiongnu chieftain Gunchen Chanyu.
  • 155BC: Emperor Jing of Han marries a third Han "princess" to Xiongnu chieftain Gunchen Chanyu.
  • 152BC: Emperor Jing of Han marries a fourth Han "princess" to Xiongnu chieftain Gunchen Chanyu.
  • 140BC: Emperor Wu of Han marries a Han "princess" to Xiongnu chieftain Gunchen Chanyu.
  • 108BC: Emperor Wu of Han marries Liu Xijun, daughter of Liu Jian, Prince of Jiangdu, granddaughter of Prince Yi of Jiangdu, to Liejiaomi, King of Wusun.
  • 103BC: Emperor Wu of Han marries Liu Jieyou to King Junxumi of Wusun. After Junxumi's death in 93BC, Princess Jieyou, in accordance with Wusun tradition, married his successor, King Wengguimi. After Wengguimi's death in 60BC, Princess Jieyou again remarried his successor King Nimi.
  • 33BC: Emperor Yuan of Han marries Wang Zhaojun, a lady of the imperial harem, to Xiongnu chieftain Huhanye. After Huhanye's death in 31BC, she remarried Huhanye's successor Fuzhuleiruodi Chanyu.

    Xiongnu

The Xiongnu practiced marriage alliances with Han dynasty officers and officials by marrying off daughters of the Chanyu to Han people who joined the Xiongnu and Xiongnu in Han service. The daughter of the Laoshang Chanyu was married to the Xiongnu General Zhao Xin, the Marquis of Xi who was serving the Han dynasty. The daughter of the Qiedihou Chanyu was married to the Han general Li Ling after he surrendered and defected. The Yenisei Kirghiz Khagans claimed descent from Li Ling. Another Han general who defected to the Xiongnu was Li Guangli who also married a daughter of the Hulugu Chanyu. The Han diplomat Su Wu married a Xiongnu woman given by Li Ling when he was arrested and taken captive. The Han explorer Zhang Qian married a Xiongnu woman and had a child with her when he was taken captive by the Xiongnu. The Emperor Wu of Han dispatched Zhang Qian to explore the Western Regions and to form an alliance with the Yuezhi people in order to combat the Xiongnu. During this time Zhang married a Xiongnu wife, who bore him a son, and gained the trust of the Xiongnu leader.
The Yenisei Kyrgyz khagans of the Yenisei Kyrgyz Khaganate claimed descent from the Han general Li Ling, grandson of the famous general Li Guang. Li Ling was captured by the Xiongnu and defected in the first century BCE. And since the Tang imperial Li family also claimed descent from Li Guang, the Kirghiz Khagan was therefore recognized as a member of the Tang imperial family. This relationship soothed the relationship when Kyrgyz khagan Are invaded Uyghur Khaganate and put Qasar Qaghan to the sword. The news brought to Chang'an by Kyrgyz ambassador Zhuwu Hesu.
Ban Zhi married a Xiongnu Jin royal woman from the Xiutu royal family

Kingdom of Khotan

The Cao family of ethnic Han descent that ruled the Guiyi Circuit established marriage alliances with the Saka Kingdom of Khotan, with both the Cao rulers marrying Khotanese princesses and with Cao princesses marrying Khotan rulers. A Khotan princess who was the daughter of the King of Khotan married Cao Yanlu.

Sixteen Kingdoms

During the Sixteen Kingdoms period, there were a total of six recorded instances of heqin marriage. Heqin marriage alliances during the Sixteen Kingdoms period differed from those practiced during the Han dynasty in two main ways. First, they involved "real" princesses. Second, unlike during the Han dynasty, when most heqin marriages were aimed at establishing peace with foreign nations, heqin marriages during the Sixteen Kingdoms period were made primarily to settle rivalries and maintain a balance of power between the various states in China at the time.
During the Northern and Southern dynasties period, China was divided into many rival states. A complicated system of rivalries and vassalage existed. Heqin marriage was employed as a method to maintain a balance of power or to solidify alliances between states.
During the Northern and Southern dynasties, there were five instances of heqin marriage.
The Tuoba imperial family of the Xianbei-led Northern Wei dynasty started to arrange for ethnic Han elites to marry daughters of the imperial family in the 480s. More than fifty percent of Tuoba Xianbei princesses of the Northern Wei were married to southern Han men from the imperial families and aristocrats from southern China of the Southern dynasties who defected and moved north to join the Northern Wei. Some exiled royalty of Han descent fled from southern China and defected to the Northern Wei. Several daughters of the Xianbei Emperor Xiaowen of Northern Wei were married to ethnic Han elites, the Liu Song royal Liu Hui 刘辉, married Princess Lanling 蘭陵公主 of the Northern Wei, Princess Huayang 華陽公主 to Sima Fei 司馬朏, a descendant of Jin dynasty royalty, Princess Jinan 濟南公主 to Lu Daoqian 盧道虔, Princess Nanyang 南阳长公主 to Xiao Baoyin 萧宝夤, a member of Southern Qi royalty. Emperor Xiaozhuang of Northern Wei's sisters, the Shouyang Princess was wedded to the Liang dynasty ruler Emperor Wu of Liang's son Xiao Zong 蕭綜. One of Emperor Xiaowu of Northern Wei's sister was married to Zhang Huan, an ethnic Han, according to the Book of Zhou. His name is given as Zhang Xin in the Book of Northern Qi and History of the Northern Dynasties which mention his marriage to a Xianbei princess of Wei. His personal name was changed due to a naming taboo on the emperor's name. He was the son of Zhang Qiong.
When the Eastern Jin dynasty ended Northern Wei received the Jin prince Sima Chuzhi as a refugee. A Northern Wei Princess married Sima Chuzhi, giving birth to Sima Jinlong. Northern Liang Lushuihu King Juqu Mujian's daughter married Sima Jinlong.

Rouran

The Rouran Khaganate arranged for one of their princesses, Khagan Yujiulü Anagui's daughter Princess Ruru 蠕蠕公主 to be married to the ethnic Han regent Gao Huan of the Eastern Wei.

Gaochang

The Kingdom of Gaochang was made out of ethnic Han colonists and ruled by the Han people Qu family, which originated from Gansu. Jincheng commandery, district of Yuzhong was the home of the Qu Jia. The Qu family was linked by marriage alliances to the Turks, with a Turk being the grandmother of King Qu Boya's.