Gabriel Báthory
Gabriel Báthory was Prince of Transylvania from 1608 to 1613. The Ottomans nicknamed him "Deli Kiral". Born to the Roman Catholic branch of the Báthory family, he was closely related to four rulers of the Principality of Transylvania. His father, Stephen Báthory, held estates in the principality, but never ruled it. Being a minor when his father died in 1601, Gabriel became the ward of the childless Stephen Báthory, from the Protestant branch of the family, who converted him to Calvinism. After inheriting most of his guardian's estates in 1605, Gabriel became one of the wealthiest landowners in Transylvania and Royal Hungary.
Gabriel made an alliance with the Hajdúsirregular troops stationing along the borders of Transylvania and Royal Hungaryand laid claim to Transylvania against the elderly prince, Sigismund Rákóczi in February 1608. Rákóczi abdicated and the Diet of Transylvania elected Gabriel prince without resistance. Both the Sublime Porte and the Habsburg ruler Matthias II acknowledged Gabriel's election. He ignored the privileges of the Transylvanian Saxons and captured their wealthiest town, Szeben, provoking an uprising in 1610. His attempts to expand his authority over the Ottoman vassal Wallachia and his negotiations with Matthias II outraged the Ottoman Sultan Ahmed I. The Sultan decided to replace Gabriel with an exiled Transylvanian nobleman, Gabriel Bethlen, and sent troops to invade the principality in August 1613. Transylvania was unable to resist and the Diet dethroned Gabriel. He was murdered by Hajdú assassins.
Early life
Childhood
Báthory was born in Várad before dawn on 15 August 1589. His father, Stephen Báthory, was a cousin of Prince of Transylvania Sigismund Báthory. Stephen was captain of Várad when Gabriel was born. Gabriel's mother was his father's first wife, Zsuzsanna Bebek. Although she had already given birth to four children, none survived infancy. Sigismund Báthory dismissed Gabriel's father from Várad in the summer of 1592, and Gabriel's family then moved to the Báthorys' ancient castle in Szilágysomlyó.The Principality of Transylvania emerged after the disintegration of the medieval Kingdom of Hungary in the 1540s. The principality included the eastern and northeastern regions of the medieval kingdom and its princes paid a yearly tribute to the Ottoman sultans. The princes were elected by the Diet, but they were to seek the Ottoman sultans' confirmation to rule the principality. The Habsburg kings of Royal Hungary regarded the principality as a part of their realm and the first rulers of the principality acknowledged the Habsburgs' claim in secret treaties in the 1570s. The Diet of Transylvania consisted primarily of the representatives of the Three Nations.
Sigismund Báthory, who was a devout Catholic, wanted to join the Holy League of Pope Clement VIII against the Ottoman Empire, but most Transylvanian noblemen opposed his plan. Stephen Báthory's brother, Balthasar, was an opposition leader. Balthasar was captured and murdered at Sigismund's order in late August 1594. Gabriel's father fled from Transylvania to Poland, leaving his family behind in Szilágysomlyó; the five-year-old Gabriel was imprisoned with his mother and newborn sister, Anna. Stephen and Balthasar's brother, Cardinal Andrew Báthory, persuaded Pope Clement VIII to intervene on their behalf. Gabriel, his mother and sister were freed at the pope's request and were allowed to join Stephen in Poland. His mother became seriously ill, and died near the end of 1595.
The Ottomans routed the armies of the Holy League in a series of battles after 1595. Sigismund Báthory abdicated in favor of Gabriel's uncle, Andrew, in early 1599 in the hope that Andrew could regain the Ottoman sultans' favor with Polish mediation. Gabriel's father accompanied Andrew back to Transylvania, and his family followed him. Michael the Brave, Prince of Wallachia, who had joined the Holy League, invaded Transylvania and defeated Andrew with the assistance of Székely troops. After Székely commoners murdered Andrew, Michael the Brave took possession of Transylvania. Gabriel's father fled to Kővár and swore fealty to the Holy Roman Emperor, Rudolph, before his death on 21 February 1601.
In guardianship
The orphaned Gabriel and Anna were placed in the guardianship of their father's childless cousin, Stephen Báthory, and lost most of their father's estates; Szilágysomlyó was seized by the royal treasury, and their scattered estates in Szatmár, Szabolcs and Kraszna Counties were seized by a distant cousin, Peter Szaniszlófi. Scholar János Czeglédi educated Gabriel in Nagyecsed, and the wealthy Stephen Báthory converted Gabriel from Catholicism to Calvinism. Gabriel pledged that he would expel Catholics, Lutherans and Unitarians from his estates. The young Gabriel's strength was legendary, and he was said to break horseshoes with his bare hands.Rudolf's troops occupied Transylvania in 1603 and his officials started to confiscate the estates of noblemen through legal proceedings on false charges of treason. One of the wealthiest landowners, Stephen Bocskai, was accused of maintaining secret correspondence with Transylvanian exiles in 1604. To avoid imprisonment, he rose up in open rebellion with the backing of the Hajdú, irregular troops stationed along the borders of Transylvania and Royal Hungary. Although Stephen Báthory did not openly support Bocskai, he sent Gabriel to Bocskai's court in Kassa. Sixteen-year-old Gabriel participated in a battle against the royal army near Sárospatak in early February 1605; three years later, poet János Rimay accused him of fleeing the battlefield. Rimay also said that Gabriel spent his days mainly drinking wine and allegedly had an affair with his aunt, Kata Iffjú.
Rise to power
Bocskai was elected prince of Transylvania on 21 February 1605 and prince of Hungary on 20 April of that year. His realm included most of Transylvania proper, Partium and Upper Hungary. Stephen Báthory died on 25 July 1605. He had willed most of his estates to Gabriel, who became one of the wealthiest noblemen in Bocskai's realm. Bocskai hinted that he regarded Gabriel as his successor, ordering Bálint Drugeth to "hold Gabriel Báthory in the highest esteem among the Hungarian lords" if he did not return from his meeting with Ottoman Grand Vizier Lala Mehmed Pasha in November 1605. Young noblemen and military officials also supported Gabriel. Years later, Gáspár Bojti Veres wrote that Gabriel hosted feasts to win popularity with Bocskai's courtiers and commanders. Gabriel's relatives, Mihály Káthay and János Imreffy, were his principal supporters. His position weakened after Bocskai who was taken ill suddenly had Káthay imprisoned for treason in early September 1606. Káthay's opponents, Simon Péchi and János Rimay, persuaded the dying Bocskai to name Bálint Drugeth his successor in his last will.Bocskai died in Kassa on 29 December 1606. A mob accused Káthay of poisoning Bocskai, and lynched him on 12 January 1607. Gabriel had demanded the Principality of Transylvania in a 2 January 1607 letter to the grand vizier, Kuyucu Murad Pasha. Bocskai's deputy, the elderly Sigismund Rákóczi, continued to administer the principality with the consent of the Diet of Transylvania. Gabriel sent Bethlen to Székely captain János Petki to secure his support, but Bethlen was imprisoned at Rákóczi's order on 26 January. Rákóczi also dismissed Várad captain Dénes Bánffy, the fiancé of Gabriel's sister Anna.
The delegates of the Three Nations of Transylvania wanted to demonstrate their right to freely elect the prince. The Diet first passed a decree prohibiting a minor from being elected prince, preventing Gabriel's election. It ignored Bocskai's last will, electing Rákóczi prince on 12 February. Gabriel mustered troops, saying that he only wanted to protect Transylvania. He demanded the cancellation of the Transylvanian decrees ordering the confiscation of his father and uncles' estates in 1595. Gabriel approached Rudolph I's councillors after the Diet expelled the Jesuits from Transylvania, offering to defend the Catholic Church in the principality if he ascended the throne and saying that he was ready to reconvert to Catholicism. Rudolph made him governor of Transylvania in June, but the appointment had no real effect on Gabriel's position. Gabriel married Bocskai's kinswoman, Anna Horváth Palocsai, about two months later.
After being unpaid for months, the Hajdús rose up in the autumn of 1607. They offered their support to Drugeth, who refused to lead them. Gabriel also treated them with disdain and promised to protect Transylvania against them at the end of October. He soon mustered his troops and marched to Upper Hungary. He again approached the royal court, asking Rudolph to make him voivode of Transylvania. After the representatives of the Hajdús and the noblemen of Upper Hungary made a fifty-day truce in Ináncs at the end of the year, Gabriel began negotiations with the Hajdús. They concluded a treaty on 8 February 1608. Gabriel pledged to grant villages to the Hajdús in Partium, and they promised to support him in seizing Transylvania. He also promised to expel "heretics and idolaters" from the royal council. According to the contemporary Ferenc Nagy Szabó's memoirs, the Ottoman grand vizier soon decided to support Gabriel.
Gabriel sent Imreffy to Rákóczi, offering to help Rákóczi seize two important domains in Upper Hungary if Rákóczi abdicated. He informed Rudolph's commissioner, Zsigmond Forgách, on 13 February 1608 that Rákóczi had already agreed to leave Transylvania. Although the Hajdús took control of the northwestern region of Partium, Gabriel forbade them to invade Transylvania proper. János Petki announced Rákóczi's abdication at the Diet in Kolozsvár on 5 March of that year.
Reign
Consolidation
The Diet elected Gabriel prince on 7 March 1608, and sent delegates to him in Nagyecsed. Although his election was technically free, he controlled the strongest army in the principality. He pledged to respect the laws of the principality, especially the privileges of the Three Nations, before accepting his election on 14 March. Gabriel was ceremoniously installed in Kolozsvár on 31 March, and the Diet granted him the domains of Fogaras and Kővár as hereditary estates. He began settling the Hajdús in Partium, and granted Böszörmény to those forced to leave Nagykálló; others received parcels in Bihar County. About 30,000 Hajdú soldiers received parcels of land from Gabriel during his reign.To assert his suzerainty over Wallachia and Moldavia, he decided to dethrone Prince Radu Șerban of Wallachia; however, the royal council and Michael Weiss dissuaded him. Radu Șerban voluntarily swore fealty to Gabriel in the presence of his envoys on 31 May. On 18 July, thirteen-year-old Prince of Moldavia Constantin I Movilă also acknowledged Gabriel's suzerainty and promised to pay a yearly tribute of 8,000 florins. That month, Gabriel visited Brassó. His feasts infuriated the burghers, who called him a drunkard or a greedy new Sardanapalus in defamatory poems. Gabriel's promiscuity was notorious; he reportedly seduced young women and promoted noblemen who were willing to offer him their wives.
He sent Bethlen to Istanbul and Imreffy to Kassa to secure his recognition by the Sublime Porte and the royal court. After a brief negotiation, Imreffy and representatives of Rudolph's brother Matthias signed two treaties on 20 August. The first treaty summarized the privileges of the Hajdús in Royal Hungary and the Principality of Transylvania. The second recognized Gabriel as lawful ruler of Transylvania, but forbade him to secede from the Holy Crown of Hungary. Bethlen returned from Istanbul in late November with the sultan's delegates, who brought the ahidnâme confirming Gabriel's election. The sultan exempted Transylvania from paying the customary tribute for three years.
Romanian Orthodox priests approached Gabriel for support against noblemen who treated them like serfs. At their request, he freed them from taxation and service demands by the landowners in June 1609. Gabriel also granted them the right to freely move about the principality. At his initiative, in October the Diet abolished all grants which had exempted some noble estates from taxation.