Theatre of France


An overview of the history of theatre of France.

Middle Ages

Discussions about the origins of non-religious theatre — both drama and farce — in the Middle Ages remain controversial, but the idea of a continuous popular tradition stemming from Latin comedy and tragedy to the 9th century seems unlikely.
Most historians place the origin of medieval drama in the church's liturgical dialogues and "tropes". At first simply dramatizations of the ritual, particularly in those rituals connected with Christmas and Easter, plays were eventually transferred from the monastery church to the chapter house or refectory hall and finally to the open air, and the vernacular was substituted for Latin. In the 12th century one finds the earliest extant passages in French appearing as refrains inserted into liturgical dramas in Latin, such as a Saint Nicholas play and a Saint Stephen play.
Dramatic plays in French from the 12th and 13th centuries:
The origins of farce and comic theatre remain equally controversial; some literary historians believe in a non-liturgical origin, others see the influence of liturgical drama and monastic readings of Plautus and Latin comic theatre.
Non-dramatic plays from the 12th and 13th centuries:
Select list of plays from the 14th and 15th centuries:
  • La Farce de maître Trubert et d'Antrongnard – Eustache Deschamps
  • Le Dit des quatre offices de l'ostel du roy – Eustache Deschamps
  • Miracles de Notre Dame
  • Bien Avisé et mal avisé
  • La Farce de maître Pierre Pathelin – this play had a great influence on Rabelais in the 16th century
  • Le Franc archer de Bagnolet
  • Moralité – Henri Baude
  • L'Homme pécheur
  • La Farce du cuvier
  • La Farce nouvelle du pâté et de la tarte
In the 15th century, the public representation of plays was organized and controlled by a number of professional and semi-professional guilds:
Genres of theatre practiced in the Middle Ages in France:
  • Farce – a realistic, humorous, and even coarse satire of human failings
  • Sottie – generally a conversation among idiots, full of puns and quidproquos
  • Pastourelle – a play with a pastoral setting
  • Chantefable – a mixed verse and prose form only found in "Aucassin et Nicolette"
  • Mystery play – a depiction of the Christian mysteries or Saint's lives
  • Morality play
  • Miracle play
  • Passion play
  • Sermon Joyeux – a burlesque sermon

    Renaissance theatre

French theatre in the 16th-century followed the same patterns of evolution as the other literary genres of the period. For the first decades of the century, public theatre remained largely tied to its long medieval heritage of mystery plays, morality plays, farces, and soties, although the miracle play was no longer in vogue. Public performances were tightly controlled by a guild system.
The guild "les Confrères de la Passion" had exclusive rights to theatrical productions of mystery plays in Paris; in 1548, fear of violence or blasphemy resulting from the growing religious rift in France forced the Paris Parliament to prohibit performances of the mysteries in the capital, although they continued to be performed in other places. By the end of the century, only the "Confrères de la Passion" remained with exclusive control over public theatrical productions in Paris, and they rented out their theatre at the Hôtel de Bourgogne to theatrical troupes for a high price. In 1597, this guild abandoned its privilege which permitted other theatres and theatrical companies to eventually open in the capital. Another guild, the "Enfants Sans-Souci" was in charge of farces and soties, as too the "Clercs de la Basoche" who also performed morality plays. Like the "Confrères de la Passion", "la Basoche" came under political scrutiny, and they were finally suppressed in 1582.
Alongside the numerous writers of these traditional works, Marguerite de Navarre also wrote a number of plays close to the traditional mystery and morality play.
As early as 1503 however, original language versions of Sophocles, Seneca, Euripides, Aristophanes, Terence and Plautus were all available in Europe and the next 40 years would see humanists and poets both translating these classics and adapting them. In the 1540s, the French university setting became host to a Neo-Latin theatre written by professors such as George Buchanan and Marc Antoine Muret which would leave a profound mark on the members of La Pléiade. From 1550 on, one finds humanist theatre written in French. Prominent figures such as Catherine de' Medici provided financial support for many humanist plays; in 1554, for example, she commissioned a translation of Gian Giorgio Trissino’s La Sofonisba, which was the first tragedy to appear in the French language.
The influence of Seneca was particularly strong in humanist tragedy. His plays — which were essentially chamber plays meant to be read for their lyrical passages and rhetorical oratory — brought to many humanist tragedies a concentration on rhetoric and language over dramatic action.

Tragedy

Humanist tragedy

Humanist tragedy took two distinct directions:
  • Biblical tragedy: plots taken from the bible — although close in inspiration to the medieval mystery plays, the humanist biblical tragedy reconceived the biblical characters along classical lines, suppressing both comic elements and the presence of God on the stage. The plots often had clear parallels to contemporary political and religious matters and one finds both Protestant and Catholic playwrights.
  • Ancient tragedy: plots taken from mythology or history — they often had clear parallels to contemporary political and religious matters
During the height of the civil wars, a third category of militant theatre emerged, adding to the existing genres of ancient tragedy and comedy. This new form of theater was characterized by its explicit political and religious themes, mirroring the turbulent contemporary context of the time. This article aims to explore and expand upon the development and significance of this militant theatre during the period of civil wars.
Militant theatre of the time was heavily influenced by the prevailing political and religious tensions. Plots were often drawn from mythology or history, presenting narratives that had clear parallels to contemporary political events and religious conflicts. This allowed audiences to connect with the performances on a personal and ideological level.
The plays performed in this category of theater often served as vehicles for political commentary and social critique. They explored themes such as power struggles, the abuse of authority, corruption, religious persecution, and the consequences of war. Through vivid and provocative storytelling, these plays sought to engage and incite audiences, encouraging them to reflect upon the turbulent times in which they lived.
One notable aspect of militant theater was its use of allegory and symbolism. Playwrights employed metaphors and allegorical characters to represent political figures, religious factions, or ideological movements. This veiled approach allowed them to address sensitive topics while avoiding direct censorship or retribution.
The actors and playwrights involved in militant theater faced considerable risks due to the politically charged nature of their work. Censorship, surveillance, and even imprisonment were constant threats. Nevertheless, the appeal and impact of these performances attracted audiences who sought catharsis, validation, and a deeper understanding of the socio-political climate.
While militant theatre during the civil wars was a product of its time, its influence extended beyond the immediate historical context. It laid the groundwork for the development of subsequent forms of political and socially conscious theater, leaving a lasting impact on the theatrical landscape.
Contemporary tragedy
  • Contemporary tragedy: plots taken from recent events
Along with their work as translators and adaptors of plays, the humanists also investigated classical theories of dramatic structure, plot, and characterization. Horace was translated in the 1540s, but had been available throughout the Middle Ages. A complete version of Aristotle's Poetics appeared later, but his ideas had circulated as early as the 13th century in Hermann the German's Latin translation of Averroes' Arabic gloss, and other translations of the Poetics had appeared in the first half of the 16th century; also of importance were the commentaries on Aristotle's poetics by Julius Caesar Scaliger which appeared in the 1560s. The fourth century grammarians Diomedes and Aelius Donatus were also a source of classical theory. The sixteenth century Italians played a central role in the publishing and interpretation of classical dramatic theory, and their works had a major effect on French theatre. Lodovico Castelvetro's Aristote-based Art of Poetry was one of the first enunciations of the three unities; this work would inform Jean de la Taille's Art de la tragedie. Italian theatre and debates on decorum would also influence the French tradition.
In the same spirit of imitation—and adaptation—of classical sources that had informed the poetic compositions of La Pléiade, French humanist writers recommended that tragedy should be in five acts and have three main characters of noble rank; the play should begin in the middle of the action, use noble language and not show scenes of horror on the stage. Some writers attempted to link the medieval tradition of morality plays and farces to classical theatre, but Joachim du Bellay rejected this claim and elevated classical tragedy and comedy to a higher dignity. Of greater difficulty for the theorists was the incorporation of Aristotle's notion of "catharsis" or the purgation of emotions with Renaissance theatre, which remained profoundly attached to both pleasing the audience and to the rhetorical aim of showing moral examples.
Étienne Jodelle's Cléopâtre captive tells the impassioned fears and doubts of Cleopatra contemplating suicide — has the distinction of being the first original French play to follow Horace's classical precepts on structure and is extremely close to the ancient model: the prologue is introduced by a shade, there is a classical chorus which comments on the action and talks directly to the characters, and the tragic ending is described by a messenger.
Mellin de Saint-Gelais's translation of Gian Giorgio Trissino's La Sophonisbe—the first modern regular tragedy based on ancient models which tells the story of the noble Sophonisba's suicide —was an enormous success at the court when performed in 1556.
Select list of authors and works of humanist tragedy: