Epistle of James


The Epistle of James is a general epistle and one of the 21 epistles in the New Testament. It was written originally in Koine Greek. The epistle aims to reach a wide Jewish audience. It survives in manuscripts from the 3rd century onward and is dated between the mid-1st and mid-2nd century AD.
James 1:1 identifies the author as "James, a servant of God and of the Lord Jesus Christ" who is writing to "the twelve tribes scattered abroad.” Traditionally, the epistle is attributed to James the brother of Jesus. This has been widely debated, with some early church figures affirming the connection and modern scholars often viewing the letter as pseudonymous due to its sophisticated Greek, possible dependence on later texts, and the lack of evidence for James’ Greek education. During the last decades, the epistle of James has attracted increasing scholarly interest due to a surge in the quest for the historical James, his role in early Christianity, his beliefs, and his relationships and views. This James revival is also associated with an increasing level of awareness of the Jewish grounding of both the epistle and early Christianity.
The Epistle of James is a public letter modeled on Jewish diaspora epistles and wisdom literature, blending moral exhortation with possible influences from Jesus’ sayings and Greco-Roman philosophical and rhetorical traditions. The historical context of the Epistle of James is debated, with some viewing it as a response to Pauline theology while others see it as rooted in a Jewish-Christian milieu marked by tensions between rich and poor, emerging divisions between Jews and Christians, and ethical concerns for marginalized groups. The epistle emphasizes perseverance in the face of trials and encourages readers to live in accordance with the teachings they have received. The letter addresses a range of moral and ethical concerns, including pride, hypocrisy, favoritism, and slander. It advocates for humility, the pursuit of wisdom aligned with spiritual values rather than worldly ones, and the practice of prayer in all circumstances.
The Epistle of James was disputed and sparsely cited in early Christianity, gained wider recognition only by the late 4th century, and was criticized by Martin Luther during the Reformation for its teachings on faith and works, though it remained part of the New Testament canon. It emphasizes that true faith must be demonstrated through works, teaching that faith without works is dead, and highlighting care for the poor, ethical living, and communal practices like anointing the sick.

Authorship

The author is identified as "James, a servant of God and of the Lord Jesus Christ". James was an extremely common name in antiquity, and a number of early Christian figures are named James, including: James the son of Zebedee, James the Less, James the son of Alphaeus, and James the brother of Jesus. Of these, James the brother of Jesus has the most prominent role in the early church, and is often understood as either the author of the epistle, or the implied author.
The earliest recorded references to the Epistle of James highlight the contentious nature of the epistle's authorship. Origen may be the first person to link the epistle to "James the brother of Lord", though this is only preserved in Rufinus's Latin translation of Origen. Eusebius writes that "James, who is said to be the author of the first of the so-called catholic epistles. But it is to be observed that it is disputed". Jerome reported that the Epistle of James "is claimed by some to have been published by some one else under his name, and gradually, as time went on, to have gained authority".

Traditional authorship

The link between James the brother of Jesus and the epistle continued to strengthen, and is now considered the traditional view on the authorship of the work. The traditional view can be divided into at least three further positions that relate also to the date of the epistle:
  1. The historical James wrote the letter prior to the Galatians controversy, and prior to the Jerusalem council ;
  2. The historical James wrote the letter in response to Paulinism of some sort;
  3. The historical James wrote his letter after the events recorded in Galatians and Acts, but is not in dialogue with Paul or Paulinism.
Many who affirm traditional authorship think James had a sufficient proficiency in Greek education to write the letter himself. Some argue that James the brother of Jesus made use of an amanuensis, which explains the quality of Greek in the letter. Dan McCartney notes this position has garnered little support. Others have advocated for a two-stage composition theory, in which many sayings in the epistle originate with James the brother of Jesus. They were collected by James' disciples and redacted into the current form of the letter.
John Calvin and others suggested that the author was the James, son of Alphaeus, who is referred to as James the Less. Martin Luther denied it was the work of an apostle and termed it an "epistle of straw", placing it in a second tier of canonical New Testament books.
The Holy Tradition of the Eastern Orthodox Church teaches that the Book of James was "written not by either of the apostles, but by the 'brother of the Lord' who was the first bishop of the Church in Jerusalem."

Pseudonymous authorship

A prevalent view within scholarship considers the Epistle of James to be pseudonymous. The real author chose to write under the name James, intending that the audience perceive James the brother of Jesus as the author. Scholars who maintain pseudonymous authorship differ on whether this was a deceitful or pious practice.
The following arguments are often cited in support of pseudepigraphy:
  1. The Greek in the Epistle of James is rather accomplished, leading many scholars to believe that it could not have been written by Jesus' brother. While it has been noted that James's homeland in Galilee was sufficiently Hellenised by the first century CE to produce figures such as the rhetorician Theodorus and the poet Meleager, there is no evidence to suggest that James attained a Greek education.
  2. The Epistle of James appears to borrow from 1 Peter, and if this is the case, James must be dated after 1 Peter.
  3. If the letter envisages a conflict with later Paulinism, this would likewise presuppose a time after the death of James.

    Dating and surviving manuscripts

The original manuscript of the Epistle of James is lost. The earliest extant manuscripts of James date to the mid-to-late 3rd century.
According to Josephus, James the brother of Jesus was killed in 62 CE, during the high priesthood of Ananus, although Clement of Alexandria and Hegesippus provide a different account of James' death, c. 69 CE.
Those who maintain that the epistle is pseudonymous generally date the epistle later, from the late first to mid-second century. This is based on a number of considerations, including the epistle's potential dependence on 1 Peter, potential response to Paul's writings or Paul's later followers, late attestation in the historical record, and the 3rd and 4th century disputes concerning the epistle's authorship.
The historiographic debate currently seems to be leaning to the side of those in favor of early dating, although not through irrefutable evidence but through indications and probabilities.
Some of the oldest surviving manuscripts that contain some or all of this letter include:
  • Papyrus 20
  • Papyrus 23
  • Papyrus 100
  • Codex Vaticanus
  • Codex Sinaiticus
  • Codex Alexandrinus
  • Codex Ephraemi Rescriptus
  • Papyrus 54
  • Papyrus 74.
An ancient manuscript containing this chapter in the Coptic language is Papyrus 6. In Latin, the epistle is preserved in the León palimpsest.

Genre

The Epistle of James is a public letter, and includes an epistolary prescript that identifies the sender and the recipients and provides a greeting. The epistle resembles the form of a Diaspora letter, written to encourage Jewish-Christian communities living outside of Israel amid the hardships of diaspora life. James stands in the tradition of the Jewish genre of "Letters to the Diaspora", including the letters of the members of the family of Gamaliel, the one preserved in 2 Maccabees 1:1–9, or some copied by Josephus, all of which are characterised by a double opening and an abrupt ending.
Many consider James to have affinities to Jewish wisdom literature: "like Proverbs and Sirach, it consists largely of moral exhortations and precepts of a traditional and eclectic nature". The epistle also has affinities with many of the sayings of Jesus which are found in Luke and Matthew. Hartin and Kloppenborg argue that the author of James uses Q through the Hellenistic practice of aemulatio, while Christopher Tuckett finds knowledge of the Gospel of Luke by the author of James a possibility.
Other scholars have noted the epistle's affinities with Greco-Roman philosophical literature. Other studies have analysed sections of James in light of Greco-Roman rhetorical conventions.

Structure

Some view the epistle as having no overarching outline: "James may have simply grouped together small 'thematic essays' without having more linear, Greco-Roman structures in mind." That view is generally supported by those who believe that the epistle may not be a true piece of correspondence between specific parties but an example of wisdom literature, formulated as a letter for circulation. The Catholic Encyclopedia says, "the subjects treated of in the Epistle are many and various; moreover, St. James not infrequently, whilst elucidating a certain point, passes abruptly to another, and presently resumes once more his former argument."
Others view the letter as having only broad topical or thematic structure. They generally organize James under three to seven general key themes or segments.
A third group believes that James was more purposeful in structuring his letter, linking each paragraph theologically and thematically:
The third view of the structuring of James is a historical approach that is supported by scholars who are not content with leaving the book as "New Testament wisdom literature, like a small book of proverbs" or "like a loose collection of random pearls dropped in no particular order onto a piece of string."
A fourth group uses modern discourse analysis or Greco-Roman rhetorical structures to describe the structure of James.
The United Bible Societies' Greek New Testament divides the letter into the following sections: