Eduard Bernstein
Eduard Bernstein was a German social democratic politician and socialist theorist. A member of the Social Democratic Party, Bernstein is best known for his reformist challenge to Marxism known as evolutionary socialism or revisionism, in which he questioned the revolutionary predictions of Karl Marx and advocated for a gradual, parliamentary path to socialism. His political and theoretical work played a significant role in the development of modern social democracy and reformist socialism.
Born into a lower-middle-class Jewish family in Berlin, Bernstein became active in socialist politics in his early twenties. He spent years in exile in Switzerland and London during the period of the Anti-Socialist Laws in Germany, where he became a close associate of Friedrich Engels. During his time in London, his interactions with the reformist Fabian Society and his observation of the stability of late Victorian capitalism led him to question key tenets of orthodox Marxism.
After Engels's death in 1895, Bernstein began to publicly articulate his revisionist views. In his most influential work, Evolutionary Socialism, he rejected the Hegelian dialectical method and disputed the Marxist predictions of the inevitable collapse of capitalism, the disappearance of the middle class, and the increasing immiseration of the proletariat. Instead, he argued that socialists should work for gradual social and political reforms through democratic institutions. His famous aphorism, "the goal is nothing, the movement everything," encapsulated his focus on the practical, democratic progress of the socialist movement over a dogmatic adherence to a revolutionary goal.
Although his views were officially condemned by the SPD, which maintained its orthodox Marxist Erfurt Program, the party's practical policies were largely reformist, reflecting the reality Bernstein described. His work sparked major debates within the international socialist movement, pitting him and his supporters against orthodox Marxists like Karl Kautsky and radicals like Rosa Luxemburg. During World War I, Bernstein's pacifist principles led him to break with the SPD's pro-war majority and co-found the anti-war Independent Social Democratic Party, though he rejoined the SPD after the war. He served in the Reichstag during the Weimar Republic, where he continued to advocate for democracy and peace. He died in Berlin in late 1932, weeks before the Nazi seizure of power.
Early life and political beginnings
Eduard Bernstein was born in Schöneberg on 6 January 1850, a time of political reaction in Germany following the failure of the Revolutions of 1848. He was the seventh of fifteen children born to Jakob Bernstein, a railway engine driver, and his wife, Johanne. His family was of Polish-Jewish origin, though they had been secular for two generations; they celebrated Christmas as a German rather than a religious holiday. This environment fostered in Bernstein a skeptical worldview from a young age. The family's income was modest, placing them in the "genteel poverty" of the lower middle class, or petty bourgeoisie. His uncle, Aaron Bernstein, was a prominent liberal journalist and the author of popular science books.At sixteen, Bernstein left school without finishing Gymnasium due to his family's financial situation and began an apprenticeship at a Berlin bank. He worked as a bank clerk from 1869 until 1878, a profession that provided a livelihood but did not capture his primary interests. His real education was self-directed, and he developed intellectual pursuits in theatre, poetry, and philosophy.
Bernstein's political awakening occurred during the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–1871. Initially a patriot, he became sympathetic to the anti-war stance of socialist leaders August Bebel and Wilhelm Liebknecht after they were accused of treason. In 1872, after reading works by Ferdinand Lassalle and being particularly impressed by a speech from the socialist agitator Friedrich Fritzsche, Bernstein and his friends joined the Social Democratic Workers' Party, known as the "Eisenachers" for the town where they were founded. He quickly became a skilled public speaker and an active party member, undertaking grueling speaking tours and engaging in debates with the rival Lassallean socialist party.
The two most influential books on the young Bernstein were Karl Marx's The Civil War in France, an exaltation of the Paris Commune, and Eugen Dühring's Critical History of National Economy and Socialism. His enthusiasm for Dühring's work proved contagious, and he was instrumental in popularizing Dühring's ideas within the socialist movement, even introducing them to Bebel. This early attachment to Dühring's thought, a blend of positivism and idealism, would later be exorcised by Friedrich Engels's sharp critique, Anti-Dühring.
Amidst government harassment and internal divisions, the Eisenachers and the Lassalleans recognized the need for unity. In 1875, the two factions merged at a congress in Gotha. The twenty-five-year-old Bernstein was a delegate to the preliminary conference and participated in the creation of the unified party, which would become the Social Democratic Party. The resulting Gotha Program was a compromise between Marxist and Lassallean ideas, which drew a sharp critique from Marx himself. Bernstein later acknowledged that the Eisenachers, himself included, had an inadequate grasp of Marxist theory at the time.
Exile (1878–1901)
In 1878, following two assassination attempts on Emperor Wilhelm I, Chancellor Otto von Bismarck enacted the Anti-Socialist Laws, which banned socialist organizations, meetings, and publications. Just before the law took effect, Bernstein accepted an offer to become the private secretary to Karl Höchberg, a wealthy socialist sympathizer, and moved to Zurich, Switzerland, in October 1878. What he expected to be a temporary stay became an exile of over twenty years.Zurich
In Zurich, Bernstein worked with Höchberg on various publishing projects. Their first enterprise, a reprint of Karl Christian Friedrich Krause's Quintessence of Socialism, aimed to convert the intelligentsia to socialism, a tactic of "permeation" that Marx disdained. Höchberg was an avid Darwinian, and Bernstein's first task was to assist him with a work attempting to prove that Darwinian theory could explain the origins of music and aesthetic senses. During this period, Bernstein encountered Engels's Anti-Dühring, a book which he recalled "converted me to Marxism" and made him a "zealous exponent of orthodoxy as he then understood." Engels's work, with its own engagement with Darwinian theory, likely strengthened Bernstein's conviction in the validity of evolutionary thought.In 1879, Bernstein became embroiled in a controversy that caused serious friction with Marx and Engels, whom he had never met. He had a minor role in the publication of an anonymous article in a new Yearbook for Social Science, financed by Höchberg. The article, written by Karl Flesch and revised by Höchberg, criticized the SPD for its proletarian focus and its "hatred of the bourgeoisie". Marx and Engels were furious, believing the article represented a bourgeois takeover of the party's organ. Engels accused Bernstein of being a key figure in this "trio of Zurichers" and demanded that Höchberg be expelled from the party.
Despite this incident, the SPD established its official, albeit illegal, newspaper, Der Sozialdemokrat, in Zurich in September 1879. Bernstein was active with the paper from the start. Anxious to clear his name with Marx and Engels, he and Bebel traveled to London in December 1880. The visit was a success; Bernstein won the full confidence of the "Londoners", and his relationship with Engels grew into a close friendship and a lifelong correspondence. In January 1881, Bebel appointed Bernstein editor of Der Sozialdemokrat. Under his leadership, and with Engels as a frequent adviser, the paper became, in Engels's words, "unquestionably the best newspaper this party has ever had." During his Zurich years, Bernstein became one of the key members of the SPD, and his circle of friends included future socialist luminaries like Karl Kautsky. Bernstein and Kautsky became close friends, carefully studying the major tracts of Marxism together, and Bernstein was undoubtedly exposed to Kautsky's intense interest in Darwinism.
London
In 1888, under pressure from Bismarck, the Swiss government expelled the staff of Der Sozialdemokrat. Bernstein and his colleagues relocated to London, which became his home for the next thirteen years. He continued to edit the paper until the Anti-Socialist Laws lapsed in 1890. With the SPD now able to operate legally in Germany, the exiled paper was no longer needed, and Bernstein, still under indictment in Germany, found himself without his editorial post. He began making a living as a freelance writer and London correspondent for the SPD's new official newspaper, Vorwärts, and Kautsky's theoretical journal, Die Neue Zeit.The 1890s were a crucial decade for Bernstein's intellectual development. He spent much of his time in the reading room of the British Museum, the same place Marx had worked for so long. He was responsible for the tactical sections of the SPD's new Erfurt Program of 1891, which was largely Marxist in its theoretical sections drafted by Kautsky. He also undertook a major historical work, Sozialismus und Demokratie in der grossen englischen Revolution, published in 1895 as the final volume of The History of Socialism. A pioneering study of the English Civil War from a social and economic perspective, the book was an original contribution to scholarship, particularly for his "discovery" of the communist thinker Gerrard Winstanley. His other major work of this period was a highly critical political biography of Ferdinand Lassalle, which aimed to dismantle the "Lassalle Legend" within the German labour movement. His intellectual interests were broad; during the 1890s, simultaneous with his turn to revisionism, he intensified his study of Darwinism and natural science. He translated a lecture by the English biologist and socialist Grant Allen, "A Disciple of Darwin as Advocate for Socialism," reviewed books on evolutionary theory, and engaged in polemics against social Darwinists who sought to use Darwinism to justify laissez-faire capitalism.
File:Zetkin Engels Bebel at International Socialist Workers Congress 1893.png|thumb|Bernstein at the Third Congress of the Second International in Zurich in 1893, with Friedrich Engels, Clara Zetkin, August Bebel, and others.
Throughout his early years in London, Bernstein remained in the shadow of Engels, who was the preeminent authority on Marxism. When Engels died in August 1895, he named Bernstein as one of his literary executors, a sign of complete confidence. It was only after Engels's death that Bernstein felt free to publicly question the orthodox Marxism he had inherited. His time in England had a profound impact on his thinking. He observed a stable, prosperous capitalist society with strong democratic traditions and a reformist, rather than revolutionary, labour movement. His experience convinced him that "the idea of a once-and-for-all break-up of capitalism was a doctrinaire illusion, and that socialists should place their hopes in gradual social reforms and socialization as the result of democratic pressure". He also established close relations with English socialists, most notably the Fabian Society, whose leaders included George Bernard Shaw and Sidney and Beatrice Webb. While Bernstein later denied that Fabianism was the direct source of his new views, and even criticised their "visionless pragmatism", the Fabians' gradualist, empirical, and ethical approach to socialism undoubtedly reinforced the direction of his own thought. Many Fabians were zealous adherents of Darwinism, and this intellectual environment, imbued with evolutionary thought from figures like H. G. Wells and Ramsay MacDonald, likely made Bernstein more receptive to gradualist ideas.