Despot (court title)

Despot or despotes was a senior Byzantine court title that was bestowed on the sons or sons-in-law of reigning emperors, and initially denoted the heir-apparent of the Byzantine emperor.
From Byzantium it spread throughout the late medieval Balkans and was also granted in the states under Byzantine cultural influence, such as the Latin Empire, the Second Bulgarian Empire, the Serbian Empire and its successor states, and the Empire of Trebizond. With the political fragmentation of the period, the term gave rise to several principalities termed "despotates" which were ruled either as independent states or as appanages by princes bearing the title of despot; most notably the Despotate of Epirus, the Despotate of the Morea, the Despotate of Dobruja and the Serbian Despotate.
In modern usage, the word has taken a different meaning: "despotism" is a form of government in which a single entity rules with absolute power. The semantic shift undergone by the term is mirrored by "tyrant", an ancient Greek word that originally bore a neutral connotation, and the Latin "dictator", a constitutionally sanctioned office of the Roman Republic. In colloquial Modern Greek, the word is often used to refer to a bishop. In English, the feminine form of the title is despotess, which denoted the spouse of a despot, but the transliterated traditional female equivalent of, , is also commonly used.

Origin and history

The original Greek term δεσπότης meant simply 'lord' and was synonymous with κύριος. As the Greek equivalent to the Latin Dominus, was initially used as a form of address indicating respect. As such it was applied to any person of rank, but in a more specific sense to God, bishops and the patriarchs, and primarily the Roman and Byzantine Emperors. Occasionally it was used in formal settings, for example on coins or formal documents. During the 8th and 9th centuries, co-emperors appear on coinage with the address, but this was still a mark of respect rather than an official title. Senior emperors were also occasionally addressed as. Before the 12th century, the honorific was used interchangeably with the more formal title of basileus.
Although it was used for high-ranking nobles from the early 12th century, the title of despot began being used as a specific court title by Manuel I Komnenos, who conferred it in 1163 to the future King Béla III of Hungary, the Emperor's son-in-law and, until the birth of Alexios II in 1169, heir-presumptive. According to the contemporary Byzantine historian John Kinnamos, the title of despot was analogous to Béla's Hungarian title of, or heir-apparent.
From this time and until the end of the Byzantine Empire, the title of despot became the highest Byzantine dignity, which placed its holders "immediately after the emperor". Nevertheless, the Byzantine emperors from the Komnenoi to the Palaiologoi, as well as the Latin Emperors who claimed their succession and imitated their styles, continued to use the term in its more generic sense of 'lord' in their personal seals and in imperial coinage. In a similar manner, the holders of the two immediately junior titles of and Caesar could be addressed as . The despot shared with the Caesar another appellatory epithet, or .
File:Manuel II Helena sons.JPG|thumb|right|200px|Emperor Manuel II Palaiologos with his family: empress Helena Dragaš, and three of their sons, the co-emperor John VIII and the despots Andronikos and Theodore
During the last centuries of Byzantium's existence, the title was awarded to the younger sons of emperors as well as to the emperor's sons-in-law. The title entailed extensive honours and privileges, including the control of large estates – the domains of Michael VIII's brother John Palaiologos for instance included the islands of Lesbos and Rhodes – to finance their extensive households. Like the junior titles of and Caesar however, the title of despot was strictly a courtly dignity, and was not tied to any military or administrative functions or powers. Women could not hold a noble title, but bore the titles of their husbands. Thus the spouse of a despot, the despotess, had the right to bear the same insignia as he. Among the women of the court, the despotesses likewise took the first place after the empress.
The use of the title spread also to the other countries of the Balkans. The Latin Empire used it to honour the Doge of Venice Enrico Dandolo and the local ruler of the Rhodope region, Alexius Slav. After ca. 1219 it was regularly borne by the Venetian podestàs in Constantinople, as the Venetian support became crucial to the Empire's survival. In 1279/80, it was introduced in Bulgaria to placate the powerful magnate George Terter in 1279/80. During the Serbian Empire it was widely awarded among the various Serbian magnates, with Jovan Oliver being the first holder, and it was held by lesser principalities as well, including the self-proclaimed Albanian despots of Arta. In the 15th century, the Venetian governors of Corfu were also styled as despots. As the title of despot was conferred by the emperor and usually implied a degree of submission by the awardee, the Palaiologan emperors tried long to persuade the Emperors of Trebizond, who also claimed the Byzantine imperial title, to accept the title of despot instead. Only John II of Trebizond and his son Alexios II, however, accepted the title, and even they continued to use the usual imperial title of in their own domains.
With the death of the last Byzantine Emperor Constantine XI on May 29, 1453, the creation of a despot became irregular. The title was granted by Pope Paul II to Andreas Palaiologos, heir to the Byzantine throne in 1465, and by the king of Hungary to the heirs of the Serbian Despotate.

Despotates

From the mid-14th century on, various territories were given to imperial princes with the rank of despot to rule as semi-autonomous appanages, some of which have become widely known in historiography as "despotates" ; in the Byzantine world, these were chiefly the Despotate of Epirus and the Despotate of the Morea. The close association of title and territory began already from the late 13th century and became widespread from the mid-14th century, as a steady succession of despots began to rule over the same territory. Nevertheless, the term "despotate" is technically inaccurate: the title of despot, like every other Byzantine dignity, was not hereditary nor intrinsic to a specific territory. Even in the so-called "despotates", a son of a despot might succeed to his father's territory but could not and would not hold the title unless it was conferred anew by the emperor. In normal Byzantine usage, a clear distinction was drawn between the personal dignity of despot and any other offices or attributes of its holder. Thus for instance John II Orsini was described as "the ruler of Acarnania, the despot John" rather than "the despot of Acarnania" by the emperor-historian John VI Kantakouzenos.

Insignia

According to the mid-14th-century Book of Offices of Pseudo-Kodinos and the descriptions given by the historian George Pachymeres, the despot's insignia in the Byzantine court were characterised by the colours purple and white, and a rich decoration in pearls. In detail, the insignia were:

A brimmed hat called studded with pearls, with a neck-cover with the owner's name embroidered in gold and pendants "similar to those of the emperor". The was an everyday headgear, but it was forbidden to despots who had not reached adolescence to wear it indoors. For ceremonies and festivities, the despot bore the domed, decorated with gold metalwork, precious stones and pearls.
A red tunic similar to the emperor's, with gold embroideries of the style but without military insignia, red leggings and a red cloak with broad stripes. For festive occasions, the long kaftan-like was worn, of red or purple colour and decorated with pearls.
A pair of purple and white soft boots, decorated with imperial eagles made of pearls on the sides and the instep. The spurs were also bi-coloured, purple and white. In a few cases where emperors wished to show special favour to a son, red boots like the emperor's were substituted, elevating its holder to an ad hoc, quasi-imperial rank "above the despots".
The despot's saddle and horse furniture were similar to that of the emperor, likewise in purple and white, decorated with pearl eagles. The coating of the saddle and the despot's tent were white with small red eagles.

The despot also had the right to sign his letters with an ink of a dark red colour.

Lists of known holders

Byzantine Empire

Name	Tenure	Conferred by	Notes	Refs
Béla III of Hungary	1163–1169	Manuel I Komnenos	Son-in-law and heir-presumptive until 1169, thereafter demoted to Caesar
Theodore Vatatzes	unknown	Manuel I Komnenos	Married to Manuel I's sister Eudokia. His holding of the title is attested only in the seal of his son.
Alexios Palaiologos	1200–1203	Alexios III Angelos	Son-in-law and heir-apparent of Alexios III, second husband of Irene Angelina. Maternal grandfather of Michael VIII
Theodore I Laskaris	1203–1208	Alexios III Angelos	Son-in-law of Alexios III, he was probably granted the title of despot after the death of Alexios Palaiologos. He founded the Empire of Nicaea and was proclaimed emperor in 1205, although he was not crowned until 1208 and was still formally despot until then.
Leo Sgouros	1203/1204–1208	Alexios III Angelos	Ruler of much of southern Greece, he met Alexios III after he was evicted from Constantinople by the Fourth Crusade. Sgouros married Eudokia Angelina and was named despot and heir-apparent by the exiled emperor
John Chamaretos	1208 – unknown	Alexios III Angelos	Lord of Laconia, mentioned as despot in a letter from 1222. He was possibly awarded the title by Alexios III after Leo Sgouros' death
Andronikos Palaiologos	1216 – unknown	Theodore I Laskaris	Son-in-law and heir-apparent of Theodore I. Very little is known about him with certainty. He married Irene Laskarina and was raised to despot, but died soon after.
Manuel Komnenos Doukas	1225/1227–1230	Theodore Komnenos Doukas	Brother of Theodore, he was raised to the rank of despot after Theodore crowned himself emperor. As heir to Theodore and ruler of Thessalonica, Manuel held the title of emperor after 1230
Constantine Komnenos Doukas	1225/1227 – unknown	Theodore Komnenos Doukas	Brother of Theodore, he was raised to the rank of despot after Theodore crowned himself emperor.
John Komnenos Doukas	1242–1244	John III Vatatzes	Ruler of Thessalonica, he abandoned the imperial title and acknowledged the suzerainty of Nicaea in 1242, being rewarded with the title of despot.
Demetrios Angelos Doukas	1244–1246	John III Vatatzes	Inherited rule of Thessalonica from his brother John and was conferred like him with the title of despot. Deposed by John III in 1246.
Michael VIII Palaiologos	1258–1259	John IV Laskaris	Leader of the nobles, he was declared regent after the murder of George Mouzalon and raised first to megas doux and then, within weeks, to despot. He was crowned emperor on 1 January 1259.
John Palaiologos	1259 – c. 1273/1275	Michael VIII Palaiologos	Brother of Michael VIII, he was elevated to the rank of despot following his victory at the Battle of Pelagonia. He renounced the insignia and privileges of a despot, but not the title itself, after his defeat at the Battle of Neopatras in 1273/1275, and died shortly after.
Demetrios Doukas Komnenos Koutroules	unknown	Michael VIII Palaiologos	Third son of Michael II of Epirus, he married Anna, one of the daughters of Michael VIII, and was named despot.
Constantine Palaiologos	unknown	Michael VIII Palaiologos	Third son of Michael VIII, he is attested as a Despot in seals.
John II of Trebizond	1282–1297	Michael VIII Palaiologos	Emperor of Trebizond, he was persuaded to renounce his own claim to be "Emperor of the Romans" and accept the title of despot and the hand of Michael VIII's daughter Eudokia. John visited Constantinople in 1282, when the title was conferred and the marriage with Eudokia took place. He nevertheless retained the imperial title in an altered form.
Constantine Palaiologos	1292–1320s	Andronikos II Palaiologos	Second son of Andronikos II, he was named despot on his marriage to the daughter of Theodore Mouzalon
John Palaiologos	1294 – unknown	Andronikos II Palaiologos	Third son of Andronikos II, he was named despot on 22 May 1294
Alexios II of Trebizond	c. 1297–1330	Andronikos II Palaiologos	Son and successor of John II of Trebizond
Demetrios Palaiologos	1306 – after 1343	Andronikos II Palaiologos	Fifth son of Andronikos II, named despot in 1306
Theodore Palaiologos	unknown	Andronikos II Palaiologos	Fourth son of Andronikos II, named despot at an unknown date, from 1305 Marquess of Montferrat
Manuel Palaiologos	unknown – 1320	Andronikos II Palaiologos	Second son of Michael IX Palaiologos, named despot at an unknown date, killed by mistake by his brother Andronikos III Palaiologos
Michael Palaiologos	before 1341 – unknown	Andronikos III Palaiologos	Second son of Andronikos III, named despot at a very young age
Momchil	1343/44–1345	Anna of Savoy	Bulgarian ruler of the Rhodopes, awarded the title by the Empress-regent during the Byzantine civil war of 1341–1347, in order to detach him from John VI Kantakouzenos, who titled him. Effectively independent until defeated and killed by Kantakouzenos' army.
Manuel Komnenos Raoul Asanes	before 1358 – unknown	John VI Kantakouzenos	Brother-in-law of John VI Kantakouzenos, named first by him and despot at an unknown date
John Kantakouzenos	1357 – unknown	John V Palaiologos	Eldest son of Matthew Kantakouzenos, named despot on his father's abdication of his imperial title
Michael Palaiologos	unknown	John V Palaiologos	Third son of John V, ruler of Mesembria, murdered in 1376/7
Andronikos Palaiologos	1409 – c. 1424	Manuel II Palaiologos	Third son of Manuel II, Despot in Thessalonica from 1409 until 1423, shortly thereafter he entered a monastery
John Palaiologos	unknown	Manuel II Palaiologos	Son of Andronikos, Despot of Thessalonica. He is mentioned as holding the title in 1419.