Dalit literature
Dalit literature is a genre of Indian writing that focuses on the lives, experiences, and struggles of the Dalit community over centuries, in relation to caste-based oppression and systemic discrimination. This literary genre encompasses various Indian languages such as Bhojpuri, Marathi, Bangla, Hindi, Kannada, Punjabi, Sindhi, Odia and Tamil and includes narrative-styles like poems, short stories, and autobiographies. The movement started gaining influence during the mid-twentieth-century in independent India and has since spread across various Indian languages.
In the colonial and post-colonial period, Jyotirao Phule's Gulamgiri, published in 1873, became a seminal work describing the plight of the Untouchables in India. Authors such as Sharankumar Limbale, Namdeo Dhasal, and Bama, and movements like the Dalit Panther movement in Maharashtra as well as Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, an advocate for Dalit rights, have played influential roles in shaping Dalit literature across India.
Dalit feminist writing such as the autobiographies and testimonios of Dalit women authors emphasizing the intersection of caste, class, and gender in the context of social exclusion came through this movement. Dalit women authors, such as Urmila Pawar and Baby Kamble, have written extensively about the complexities of caste, class, and gender in Indian society.
Early Dalit literature
One of the first Dalit writers was Madara Chennaiah, an 11th-century cobbler-saint who lived during the reign of the Western Chalukyas and who is also regarded by some scholars as the "father of Vachana poetry." Another poet from the same Jangam order, who finds mention is Dohara Kakkayya, a Dalit by birth, whose six confessional poems survive. Chokhamela, initiated into the bhakti movement by the poet-saint Namdev, sang several songs in the abhang style during the 14th century. Ravidas was also a renowned spiritual leader in the bhakti tradition who came from leather-working caste. Other Marathi Bhakti poets such as Gora, and Karmamela, and the Tamil Siddhas, or Chittars are also suggested to have been Dalits.The Panchasakha poets—Balarama Dasa, Jagannatha Dasa, Achyutanda Dasa, Jasobanta Dasa, and Ananta Dasa—were influential in Odia literature from 1450 to 1550 AD. They wrote in the vernacular in Odia literature which helped establish colloquial Odia's use in literature, representing a departure from Sanskrit-dominated literary traditions. Their contributions include translations of sacred Hindu texts into accessible language, such as Jagmohan Ramayan, Odia Bhagabata, Harivamsa, Premabhakti Brahmagita, and Hetudaya Bhagabata. Sudramuni Sarala Dasa is noted as a pioneer of the social protest movement in Odisha during the fifteenth century. A Sudra by caste, he depicted the experiences of the marginalised through works written in the vernacular language. His major works, the Odia Mahabharata, the Bilanka Ramayana, and Chandi Purana focused on contemporary issues and everyday experiences and directly critiqued the dominance of Sanskrit in literature and royalty as subjects of such literature.
Telugu Dalit literature has a history dating back to the 17th century, featuring poets such as Potuluri Veerabrahmam and Yogi Vemana, who wrote about the societal evils of caste and untouchability.
Modern Dalit literature
The body of modern Dalit literature, which encompasses a growing collection of work, is largely rooted in developments from the late 1960s onward. Nevertheless, its origins can be traced to the early 19th century. Modern Dalit writing only emerged as a distinct genre following reformist thinkers and writers such as Narayana Guru, Jyotirao Phule, B.R. Ambedkar, Iyothee Thass, Sahodaran Ayyappan, Ayyankali, Poykayil Appachan, among others.According to scholars Satyanarayana and Tharu, Dalit literature gained traction when the Dalit Panthers movement revitalized and extended the ideas of Ambedkar, critiquing Indian nationalism's Gandhian perspective and launching a new social movement centred on Dalit rights and empowerment. Over subsequent decades, Dalit writing evolved into a nationwide phenomenon, reformulating the issue of caste and reassessing the impacts of colonialism and missionary activity. Tatyanarayana and Tharu note that these works vividly illustrate and analyze the persistent workings of caste power in contemporary India Dalit author Sharankumar Limbale characterizes Dalit literature as a medium for expressing the grief inherent in Dalit lives, documenting experiences of discrimination, poverty, and social exclusion faced by Dalit communities. Jaydeep Sarangi, in his 2018 introduction to Dalit Voice, writes that Dalit literature is a culture-specific upheaval in India giving importance to Dalit realization, aesthetics and resistance.
The movement can be traced back to the publication of Gulamgiri by Jyotirao Phule in 1873, which set the stage for future writers to explore and express the experiences of Dalits. Notable contributors to Modern Dalit literature include Mahasweta Devi, Arjun Dangle, Sachi Rautray, Rabi Singh, Basudev Sunani, Bama, Abhimani, Poomani, Imayam, Marku, Mangal Rathod, Neerav Patel, Perumal Murugan, , Yendluri Sudhakar, and D. Gopi.
In recent years, new voices in Dalit literature have emerged, broadening the scope and impact of this genre. Among these are P. Sivakami, whose work The Grip of Change is acclaimed for its insights into Dalit life, and Vijila Chirrappad, a writer from Kerala who addresses the challenges facing Dalit women. Dev Kumar, founder of Apna Theatre in 1992, has used drama to promote Dalit consciousness, while Tamil Nadu-based Meena Kandasamy combines feminist and anti-caste themes to highlight the intersections of gender and caste discrimination.
The first Dalit literature conference, Dalit Sahitya Sammelan, was held in 1958 organised by Annabhau Sathe. He was a communist, who turned to Ambedkarite movement in the later part of his life. This gathering is widely recognized as an event that was foundational in it establishment of Dalit literature as a literary genre.
Regional literature
Dalit literature in Marathi
Dalit literature in the modern era emerged in the Marathi language as a literary movement as a precursor to its flourishing in various Indian languages. The formation of a distinct literary culture can be traced to the formation of Anarya Dosh Pariharak Mandal in 1890 started with retired British army officials from the Mahar and Chambar communities. Its president, Gopal Baba Valangkar, a close associate of Phule, started his main body of literary work for the Mahars post his retirement from the British Army. However, the need for an organisation to promote cultural awareness amongst these communities was already articulated by their contemporary poet Kondaji Ramji or Pandit Kondiram. The latter had already written on the inhumane conditions leading to death imposed on the Mahars. Kondiram's poetry made distinctions between Hinduism dictated by the Manusmriti's Brahmanic laws and the Bhakti movement as a path to spiritual enlightenment.In 1958, the term "Dalit literature" was used at the first conference of Maharashtra Dalit Sahitya Sangha in Mumbai. Notable Dalit authors writing in Marathi include Arun Kamble, Shantabai Kamble, Raja Dhale, Namdev Dhasal, Daya Pawar, Annabhau Sathe, Laxman Mane, Laxman Gaikwad, Sharankumar Limbale, Bhau Panchbhai, Kishor Shantabai Kale, Narendra Jadhav, Shankar Rao Kharat, and Urmila Pawar.
Baburao Bagul's first collection of stories, Jevha Mi Jat Chorali, published in 1963, depicted the societal cruelty experienced by Dalits and thus brought in a new momentum to Dalit literature in Marathi. Actor-director Vinay Apte later adapted it into a film, contributing further to its cultural impact. Namdeo Dhasal, who founded Dalit Panther and its members wrote works that amplified the genre's impact on Marathi literature.
Shankarrao Kharat served as president of the 1984 session of Marathi Sahitya Sammelan held in Jalgaon highlighting the increasing acceptance of Dalit voices in mainstream Marathi literary forums. Dalit literature started being mainstream in India with the appearance of the English translations of Marathi Dalit writing. An Anthology of Dalit Literature, edited by Mulk Raj Anand and Eleanor Zelliot, and Poisoned Bread: Translations from Modern Marathi Dalit Literature, originally published in three volumes and later collected in a single volume, edited by Arjun Dangle and published in 1992. 'Poisoned Bread' - the collection takes its name from a story by Bandhu Madhav about Yetalya Aja, a Mahar who is forced to consume stale bread covered in dung and urine and dies as a result. Before he dies, Aja tells his grandson to get an education and take away the accursed bread from the mouths of Mahars.
In 1993, Ambedkari Sahitya Parishad organized the first Akhil Bharatiya Ambedkari Sahitya Sammelan in Wardha, Maharashtra to re-conceptualize and transform Dalit literature into Ambedkari Sahitya, named after the Dalit modern-age hero, advocate and scholar B.R. Ambedkar. Ambedkari Sahitya Parishad then successfully organized the Third Akhil Bharatiya Ambedkari Sahitya Sammelan in 1996 and became a voice of advocacy for awareness and transformation.
Dalit literature in Bengali
In Bengali literature, the term "charal," derived from the Sanskrit word "chandal," serves as an umbrella term for Scheduled Castes, and the literature emerging from this context is often referred to as "Charal literature." This genre reflects the experiences and struggles of marginalized communities in Bengal. Notable examples of Charal literature include Jatin Bala's Sekor Chhera Jibon and Samaj Chetanar Galpa and Kalyani Charal's Chandalinir Kobita. The development of Dalit literature in Bengal was significantly influenced by the leadership of Harichand Thakur, a prominent figure in the Motua community, and the ideas of Dr. B.R. Ambedkar.Scholars like Sekhar Bandyopadhyay in The Namasudra Movement and Sumit Sarkar in Writing Social History highlight the influence of the Motua community in developing caste consciousness and anti-caste movements in colonial Bengal. The Motua faith developed as an ideological opposition to Brahmanical Hindu practices in East Bengal and has since expanded to include various marginalized lower castes. Themes in Charal literature address a variety of issues, including the role of women in Motua religious teachings, the work ethic promoted by Harichand Thakur, and the relevance of Harichand's teachings to the Namasudra uprisings. Additionally, these writings explore the relationship between Motua dharma and the works of B.R. Ambedkar. According to Bandyopadhyay, Motua songs convey messages aimed at enhancing the self-confidence and collective identity of the oppressed community.
The Dalit Panther movement in Maharashtra led by influential figures such as Namdeo Dhasal has also inspired the Dalit literary movement in Bengal. This movement produced literature that starkly contrasts with the prevailing literary trends in Bengal, which often focused on romanticism and nationalism while neglecting pressing social issues. The autobiography of Dalit proletariat author Manoranjan Byapari, Itibritte Chandal Jiban, has garnered critical acclaim, further elevating the visibility and popularity of Dalit literature in Bengal. Other active Dalit journals in the region include Adhikar, Dalit Mirror, Nikhil Bharat, and Neer.
The organized Dalit literary movement in Bengal began in 1992, following the death-by-suicide of Chuni Kotal, which sparked widespread protests. These events led to the formation of the Bangla Dalit Sahitya Sanstha and the launch of the magazine Chaturtha Duniya. Chaturtha Duniya, which translates to "Fourth World," refers to the world of the fourth varna of the caste system while articulating the experiences of living in a world within the third world. This magazine has been instrumental in highlighting the works of significant Dalit writers in Bengal, including Manohar Mouli Biswas, Jatin Bala, Kapil Krishna Thakur, Kalyani Charal, Manju Bala, and others.